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Popular socialism (Central Europe)

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Popular socialism (German: Volkssocialismus; Czech: Národní socialismus; Slovene: Narodni socializem) is a distinct socialist ideology in Central Europe with the origin in Austria-Hungary. Central European popular socialism represents different positions than popular socialism in Nordic countries, which is known for larger left-wing emphasis. With its origin in the 1890s, popular socialism in Central Europe is traditionally associated with democratic and classical radical politics that connects liberal socialism with defined nationalism of appropriate country.

Popular socialism is traditionally a centre-left political ideology associated with Central Europe. This Central European popular socialism is mainly associated with left-wing nationalism, classical radicalism and liberal socialism.[1][2] Traditionally it was influential in politics of Austria-Hungary and its successor states, especially in Czech politics and Slovenian politics. Popular socialism in economics was traditionally close to guild socialism, as its maintained its own trade unions.[3] In practical politics it practiced gradual reformism of state laws and economy. In a philosophical field, popular socialism is viewed by their advocates rather as an idealist socialism, rather than strict material socialism proponed by Marxism.[4][5] In the context of regional variation, ideology of popular socialism was also referred as Czech socialism and later also Czechoslovak socialism in Czechoslovakia and Yugoslav socialism in Yugoslavia.[6][4][7]

Etymology

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Popular socialism is in original Czech known as národní socialismus, in Slovene as narodni socializem and in German as volkssozialismus. While common adjective in Slavic languages národní / narodni is to English primarily translated from Czech and Slovene as national, in Serbo-Croatian and Ukrainian it is usually primarily translated as people's. That can cause confusion in distinguishing the ideology. Popular socialism is in original Czech known as národní socialismus (lit. National socialism). That is because Czech language also distinguish variations of English adjective "national" as národní (English: soft national) and nacionální (English: hard national).[8][9] Thanks to that, Czech historiography distuinguishes democratic ideology of popular socialism as národní socialismus while German Nazism as nacionální socialismus.[10][11] Origin of popular socialism is associated with establishment of the Czech National Social Party in 1897 in Austria-Hungary and needs to be distinguished from historically younger and widely known far-right ideology of Nazism. In German linguistic environment, popular socialism also needs to be distinguished from ultranationalist Strasserism, as in the 1930s, ideology of this movement rarely referred itself also as volkssozialismus.[12] In the context of regional variation, ideology of popular socialism was also referred as Czech socialism and later also Czechoslovak socialism in Czechoslovakia and Yugoslav socialism in Yugoslavia.[6][4][7]

Symbolism

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Quill and hammer, traditional symbol of popular socialism in Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia, that also represents association with the Radical current, as it shares its symbolism with the Radical Civic Union in Argentina.

Quill and hammer is traditional symbol of popular socialism both in Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia.[13][14] This symbol also manifests association with classical radicalism, as the Czechoslovak National Socialist Party was member of the Radical International and it was used also in other parts of the world.[15] It symbolizes traditional supporters of the movement. In its interpretation, quill represents clerks and intelligentsia, while hammer represents workers.[16] Historically it has been used even before establishment of the Czech National Social Party in 1897, as it was used as a symbol of Czech self-help consumer associations for workers associated with economist František Ladislav Chleborád. Their history is dated back to the 1870s and is considered as predecessor to the movement.[17] since beginning of the 20th century, movement was also associated with railway workers across whole of Austria-Hungary.[7]

History

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Foundation

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Original party and its ideology emerged in 1897 as it opposed to social democracy of the Czech Social Democratic Party, that supported Marxist Internationalism and Austromarxism.[18] Party then also risen up against politics of major Czech parties, especially Young Czech Party, which was opposed as a party without enough socially reform politics not in accordance with call for more social justice.[19] Beginning of the movent is associated with the foundation of the Czech National Social Party in 1897. Besides Czech lands, their ideology across whole of the Cisleithanian part of the monarchy. Socialist and nationalist ideology was represented by leading motto: "Equality of Nations, Equality Among Nation" (Czech: Rovnost národů, rovnost v národě).[20] They were ideologically in opposition to further centralisation of power in Vienna. Besides Czech lands, organizations of the Czech National Social Party were gradually created in many regions of Austria-Hungary. Official land organizations were also in Lower Austria and Upper Austria, which after dissolution of Austria-Hungary became basis for Czechoslovak party in the First Austrian Republic after 1919. Branches of party corporations were also in Istria. After 1900 the youth wing of the Czech National Social Party was associated within the International Anti-Militarist Association.[21] Their emphasis on antimilitarism was persecuted by the Austrian authorities and led to the trial with Czech Antimilitarist Congress in Prague in 1909, that led to imprisonment of many members of the youth.[22] After beginning of the World War I, Czech National Social Party was banned and many members including party leader Václav Klofáč were imprisoned.[23] Popular socialist politics were accompanied with various other corporations like trade unions, corporation for railway workers, youth organizations or health insurance corporations. These progressive activities lead to the awareness of popular socialism elsewhere in the empire, not just to Czechs. This became prominent especially among Slovenes, when prominent figure Anton Pesek got inspired by popular socialism from the original Czech movement and in 1919 founded People's Socialist Party in newly formed Yugoslavia.[7][24][25]

Interwar evolution

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In short revolutionary period after 1918, Czechoslovak popular socialists also contained anarchist members who merged to the party from Anarchist associations, as the party turned more to the left.[26] In this period in the 1920s Czechoslovak National Socialist Party was for a short period of time observer party in the Labour and Socialist International along with the Social Democrats.[27] During the 1920s party exited cooperation with the Labour and Socialist International and transferred to the Radical International.[28] After 1918 Czech popular socialists also became main adherents Czechoslovakism, national motive for unified nation Czechs and Slovaks. Popular socialists gradually became adherents of liberal political establishment of the Hrad, associated with First President of Czechoslovakia Tomáš Masaryk. This was manifested in 1923, when Foreign Minister and one of the most important figures in the country Edvard Beneš, joined the Czechoslovak National Socialist Party.[16]

Czech politician Václav Klofáč (1868–1942)
Czech politician Václav Klofáč (1868–1942)

Popular socialism also contained Christian association with political Protestantism. Popular socialism in Czechoslovakia was associated with Hussite tradition, which they considered Hussites as predecessors of modern Socialism. Movement was part Anti-Catholic camp that advocated anti-clericalism, as the Catholic Church was closely associated with the governmental establishment of Austria-Hungary until 1918. After 1920 popular socialism in Czechoslovakia was closely associated with the Czechoslovak Hussite Church.[29][30] People's Socialist Party in Yugoslavia composed mainly with Slovene members, also associated their views with anti-clericalism when they contrasted with their main Catholic opponent, the Slovene People's Party.[31] In Czechoslovakia demographically popular socialism was strong in great urban areas such as Prague and Brno, where the party became lead force in the city governments.[32] The party was not very strong in rather agrarian Slovakia, although some intellectuals participated in the party, such as Slovak novelist and politician Jozef Gregor-Tajovský, who became armiger of the cultural front for popular socialism in Slovakia.[33] From 1920 Czechoslovak National Socialist Party participated within centrist alliance of Pětka, bloc of most prominent political parties in the government.[34]

As Czechoslovakia represented main country form émigrés from the countries of former Russian Empire, Czechoslovak National Socialist Party traditionally maintained relations with exiled Narodniks and Trudoviks and their exile organizations. After the end of the Russian Civil War, party also organized help for imprisoned democratic socialists by the Soviet regime in the Soviet Union.[35] Foreign Minister and later President Edvard Beneš, maintained strong involvement in international institutions, for example position of President of the Plenary Assembly of the League of Nations from 1935 to 1936. He maintained strong party cooperation with the Republican, Radical and Radical-Socialist Party in France. This especially manifested by the membership of the party in the Radical International. Edvard Beneš was also supporter of Paneuropean Union, which intended to defend democracy and progress of unification of Europe. This manifested in 1930 by diplomatic support for idea presented in the Assembly of the League of Nations by allied French Radical-Socialist statesman Aristide Briand, aiming towards idea of European federation, later manifested as the European Union.[36]

World War II and afterwards

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After German occupation of Czechoslovakia in 1938, popular socialist ministers were part of the Czechoslovak government-in-exile in London. Many members of the party were part of Anti-Nazi Resistance and many of members of so-called "Benesch-Partei" were sent to concentration camps.[37] After 1945, the party in home was revived and joined government of the united front. After success of Communists in 1946 Czechoslovak parliamentary election, popular socialists became the strongest non-communist democratic party. In 1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état, popular socialism became main force against seizure of democracy by the Communists. Around 400 thousand party member were expelled from the party and pro-Communist leadership took over the party, that was as a bloc party renamed to the Czechoslovak Socialist Party.[38]

After 1989

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After the Velvet Revolution in 1989, exile leadership of the party returned from abroad and merged to the party in homeland. Popular socialism in Czechoslovakia generally moved more towards social liberalism, as the main historic party became part of the Liberal-Social Union in 1991–1994 and in 1993–1997 was even officially renamed as the Liberal National Social Party. After the dissolution of Czechoslovakia and establishment of the Czech Republic in 1993, party failed to gain electoral support and in 1996 dropped out of the Parliament. In reaction to the demise of the original party, various other popular socialist parties started to emerge, but never succeeded to enter into big national politics.[39]

Feminism

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Popular socialism is also associated with feminism. Especially in the era of the First Czechoslovak Republic significant feminist figures such as Františka Plamínková, Luisa Landová-Štychová or Milada Horáková participated in the political sphere.[40] Progressive positions manifested itself in the politics of the party in the government, such as subvention of building of housing for independent working women. Representatives of the party were represented in the leadership of the Women's National Council. Inside the party direction towards equal status of women were represented also in party self-defence paramilitary Freedom Guard Union, where existed also women units with military training preparation.[41]

Monument of important popular socialist figure Milada Horáková in Prague, Czech Republic.

Anti-communist tradition

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Popular socialism as Non-Marxist ideology have living tradition of anti-communism, as well as tradition in calling on participation in a popular front along with other centrist and leftist parties. That was manifested during the World War II, that led to the establishment National Front of Czechoslovakia in 1944. Democratic tradition became the main force in 1948, when the Czechoslovak National Socialist Party resigned in protest against Stalinization of the police forces under communist Minister of Interior Václav Nosek. In 1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état, popular socialism became main force against seizure of democracy by the Communists.[38] Process with popular socialist politician Milada Horáková in 1950, as it was one of the biggest show trials in the Cold War era. In 1950 she was sentenced along with others for execution on fabricated charges of conspiracy and treason. Many prominent figures in the West, including Albert Einstein, Vincent Auriol, Eleanor Roosevelt and Winston Churchill, petitioned for her life.[42][43] After 1949 exile-leadership of the Czechoslovak National Socialist Party in lead with Petr Zenkl became the strongest party represented in the Plenary Assembly of the Council of Free Czechoslovakia, member organization of the Assembly of Captive European Nations in New York.[44] All membership of the 400,000+ party members were expelled, and people appointed by the Communists took charge of then newly renamed Czechoslovak Socialist Party. Party then fulfilled role of the bloc party until Velvet Revolution in 1989.[45]

Other influences

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There are many similar movements, with possible influences from ideology in the region. One of them was Hapoel Hatzair, founded in 1905 by Ashkenazi Jewish immigrants to Palestine, which came mainly from the Central European and Eastern European region. Their ideology was defined by the main ideologue of the movement Haim Arlosoroff as Jewish popular socialism. Non-Marxist socialism within their national ideology Zionism.[46] Friendly relations with Zionism later emphasized by Czech popular socialist and member of the party Edvard Beneš, who participated on Zionist Congress and as a President of Czechoslovakia strongly supported foundation of the State of Israel in 1948.[47] Polish National Workers' Party which participated in Centrolew coalition from 1930, was allied party of both popular socialist parties in Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia, with whom the party closely collaborated.[48]

In the 1930s Sudeten German Social Democrat Wenzel Jaksch was representative of distinct German popular socialism (German: volkssozialismus), as a faction of the German Social Democratic Workers' Party in the Czechoslovak Republic, that participated in coalition governments along with Czechoslovak popular socialists from 1929 to 1938. His German nationalism within social democratic framework spose to be used as weapon for democracy against Nazism, especially after 1933 Adolf Hitler's takeover of Germany and rising popularity of the Sudeten German Party among Sudeten Germans. Wenzel Jaksch faction was criticized by social democratic internationalists within his party and from abroad. By the rising eminence of threat from Nazi Germany in late 1930s, Wenzel Jaksch didn't even refused cooperation with Strasserism on common anti-Hitler coalition.[49] By 1938 his political faction got even into conflict with Czechoslovak authorities, where Czechoslovak National Socialist Party participated as a government party. After German occupation and his failure to represent Sudeten Germans within Czechoslovak government-in-exile in London, he din't managed to prevent expulsion of Germans from Czechoslovakia after end of the World War II in 1945. After 1957 Wenzel Jaksch represented his views in the leadership of the Federation of Expellees in West Germany and also represented specific ideological faction within the Social Democratic Party of Germany.[50][51]

Political parties

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Czech popular socialist parties today varies primarily on the position towards the European Union and Transatlantic partnership.[52]

Czechoslovakia

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Yugoslavia

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Austria

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Czech Republic

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Other similar parties with factions that are not associated within core ideology

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References

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  1. ^ Perovšek 1996, p. 119
  2. ^ Michel, Bernard (1986). "Les caractères originaux de l'histoire des Tchèques et des Slovaques". La mémoire de Prague: conscience nationale et intelligentsia dans l'histoire tchèque et slovaque (in French). Paris: Perrin. pp. 38–72. ISBN 978-2262004170.
  3. ^ Šantrůček, Bohuslav (1938). Masaryk a Klofáč: srovnávací studie (in Czech). Prague: Ústřední škola dělnická. p. 234.
  4. ^ a b c Linhart, Jiří. "Socialismus český – Sociologická encyklopedie". encyklopedie.soc.cas.cz (in Czech). Sociological Institute AV ČR. Retrieved 29 March 2025.
  5. ^ Zenkl, Petr (1946). Národní socialismus věčně živý (in Czech). Prague: Melantrich. p. 25.
  6. ^ a b Klofáč, Václav (1901). "Proč jsme národními socialisty". Kalendář české demokracie (in Czech). 1 (1). Prague: Knihtiskárna Národního dělnictva (J. Stolař): 98.
  7. ^ a b c d Perovšek 1996, p. 117
  8. ^ "národní". Slovník spisovného jazyka českého (in Czech). Institute of the Czech Language. Retrieved 29 March 2025.
  9. ^ "nacionální". Slovník spisovného jazyka českého (in Czech). Institute of the Czech Language. Retrieved 29 March 2025.
  10. ^ Jandčík, Drahomír; Kubů, Eduard (2011). Nacionalismus zvaný hospodářský: střety a zápasy o nacionální emancipaci/převahu v českých zemích (1859-1945) (in Czech) (1. vyd ed.). Prague: Dokořán. pp. 11, 589. ISBN 978-80-7363-351-6.
  11. ^ "Nacismus – Sociologická encyklopedie". encyklopedie.soc.cas.cz. Sociological Institute AV ČR. Retrieved 2 April 2025.
  12. ^ "The German Popular Front". Social History Portal (in German). International Association of Labour History Institutions (IALHI). Retrieved 30 March 2025.
  13. ^ "Plaketa Václav Klofáč". Vojenský historický ústav. Military History Institute Prague. 16 May 2024. Retrieved 4 April 2025.
  14. ^ "Sjezd jihoslovanské národně-socialistické strany v Lublani. Skupinová fotografie". digitalnibadatelna.nacr.cz. National Archive of the Czech Republic. 22 March 1924. Retrieved 29 March 2025.
  15. ^ "¿Que es la Juventud Radical?" (in Spanish). Juventud Radical. Retrieved 29 March 2025.
  16. ^ a b Holub, Ondřej (17 January 2022). "Pod symbolem kladiva a pera. Proč nám dnes chybí český národní socialismus?". Deník Alarm (in Czech). ISSN 2788-3280. Retrieved 29 March 2025.
  17. ^ Klátil 1992, p. 8
  18. ^ Perovšek 1996, p. 121
  19. ^ Krečmer 2000, p. 53
  20. ^ Krečmer 2000, p. 76
  21. ^ Špatný, Emil (1922). Český antimilitarism: kus historie a trochu vzpomínek (in Czech). Prague: Mladé Proudy. pp. 18–19. Retrieved 30 March 2025.
  22. ^ Klátil 1992, p. 40
  23. ^ Klofáč, Václav (1918). "Deputy Klofac's Prison Memoirs" . The Bohemian Review. Vol. 2, no. 2. Bohemian Review Co. – via Wikisource.
  24. ^ Gašparič, Jure (2001). "Knez Eulenburg na ljubljanskem dvoru". Zdogovina za vse (in Slovenian) (8): 59–69. ISSN 1318-2498.
  25. ^ Habjanič, Iva (25 August 2015). "PESEK, Anton". Obrazi slovenskih pokrajin (in Slovenian). Retrieved 29 March 2025.
  26. ^ Staszek, Zdeněk (16 July 2024). "Anarchistická podezřívavost k autoritám všeho druhu zůstává nosná". Časopis Host (in Czech). ISSN 2336-2944. Retrieved 30 March 2025.
  27. ^ Klátil 1992, p. 156
  28. ^ Uyar, Hakkı (2007). Mete Tunçay'a armağan (in Turkish). Cağaloğlu, İstanbul: İletişim. pp. 707–724. ISBN 978-9750504815. Retrieved 29 March 2025.
  29. ^ Němec, Ludvík (1975). "The Czechoslovak Heresy and Schism: The Emergence of a National Czechoslovak Church". Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. 65 (1): 70. doi:10.2307/1006240. JSTOR 1006240.
  30. ^ Klátil 1992, p. 189
  31. ^ Perovšek 1996, p. 118
  32. ^ Schneibergová, Martina (27 October 2018). "Prager Verwandlungen nach 1918". Radio Prague International (in German). Retrieved 29 March 2025.
  33. ^ Dudášová, Linda (2003). "Election propaganda of the Czechoslovak National Socialist Party in the first Czechoslovak Republic on posters and leaflets". Zborník Slovenského národného múzea. História (in Slovak). 97 (1): 61. ISSN 0139-5378.
  34. ^ Krečmer 2000, p. 111
  35. ^ "Pracujícímu lidu čsl. republiky!". České slovo (in Czech). 14 (31): 2. 5 February 1922. ISSN 2694-7129.
  36. ^ Jeřábek, Miroslav (26 May 2004). "Coudenhove-Kalergi". Reflex (in Czech). ISSN 0862-6634. Retrieved 4 April 2025.
  37. ^ Klátil 1992, p. 330
  38. ^ a b Klátil 1992, p. 318
  39. ^ Fiala, Petr; Mareš, Miroslav (1997). "Vývoj systému politických stran v České republice (1992–1996)". Politologický časopis (in Czech). 4 (3): 310. ISSN 1211-3247.
  40. ^ Krečmer 2000, p. 127
  41. ^ Klátil 1992, p. 220
  42. ^ "Milada Horáková". Radio Prague. Archived from the original on 27 June 2020. Retrieved 27 June 2020.
  43. ^ Janzer, Till; Kézrová, Eva; Korcová, Lucie (27 June 2020). "Standhaft und mutig bis über das Todesurteil hinaus". Radio Prague International (in German). Retrieved 29 March 2025.
  44. ^ Čelovský, Bořivoj (2000). Politici bez moci: první léta exilové Rady svobodného Československa (in Czech) (1 ed.). Šenov u Ostravy: Tilia. pp. 173–174. ISBN 80-86101-33-9.
  45. ^ Klátil 367, p. 220
  46. ^ Arlosoroff, Haim (1919). Der jüdische Volkssozialismus (PDF) (in German). Berlin: Verlag Hapoël Hazaïr. pp. 1–6. Retrieved 28 March 2025.
  47. ^ Yegar, Moshe (1997). Československo, sionismus, Izrael: historie vzájemných vztahů (in Czech). Prague: Victoria Publishing. p. 63. ISBN 80-7219-002-4.
  48. ^ "Sjezd národních socialistů". Český směr (in Czech). 29 (134): 1. 7 June 1927. ISSN 1805-1596. Retrieved 5 April 2025.
  49. ^ Alexander, Manfred (1977). "Wenzel Jaksch und die sudetendeutsche Sozialdemokratie. Veröffentlichungen des Collegium Carolinum Band 29 by Martin K. Bachstein". Jahrbücher Für Geschichte Osteuropas (in German). 25 (2): 281–83. ISSN 0021-4019. JSTOR 41045525.
  50. ^ Víšek, Zdeněk (15 December 2016). "Československý, či (sudeto)německý politik?". Listy: časopis československé socialistické opozice (in Czech). 46 (6): 31–37. ISSN 1210-1222.
  51. ^ Kárník, Zdeněk (2008). Malé dějiny československé (1867-1939) (in Czech). Prague: Dokořán. p. 312. ISBN 978-80-7363-146-8.
  52. ^ "Národně sociální strana | Program". narodnesocialnistrana.cz (in Czech). Retrieved 5 April 2025.

Bibliography

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