User:PersusjCP/sandbox/Suquamish people

Suquamish
suq̓ʷabš
	A Suquamish woman, photographed in 1913 by Edward S. Curtis
Regions with significant populations
	Washington state (United States)
Languages
	English; historically Lushootseed
Religion
	Traditional ethnic religion; Christianity (incl. syncretic forms)
Related ethnic groups
	Other Southern Coast Salish peoples, notably the Twana and Duwamish

The Suquamish people (soo-KWAH-mish; Lushootseed: suq̓ʷabš) are a Southern Coast Salish people indigenous to what is today western Washington state.

Name

The name "Suquamish" is from suq̓ʷabš, the name for the Suquamish people in their language, Lushootseed. The name means "people of the clear saltwater,"^[1]^[2]^[3] from the root √suq̓ʷ and the suffix =abš, 'people'.^[4] The name refers to dxʷsəq̓ʷəb (also spelled xʷsəq̓ʷəb),^[5] the name for the site of the main Suquamish village on Agate Pass.^[6] They have also been called ʔitakʷbixʷ, 'mixed people', by other groups such as the Snohomish.^[3]^{[citation needed]}

"Suquamish" has historically been spelled variously as Soquamish,^[7] Soquam,^[8]

Classification

Suttles, Wayne; Lane, Barbara (1990). Southern Coast Salish. Handbook of North American Indians. Vol. 7. Smithsonian Institution. pp. 485–502. ISBN 0-16-020390-2.

Geography

Historic territory

The core of the historic territory of the Suquamish is Kitsap Peninsula. At the time of the treaty, the Suquamish held the west side of Puget Sound from the mouth of Hood Canal to Olalla and Vashon Island, including Port Madison, Liberty Bay, Port Orchard, Dye's Inlet, and Sinclair Inlet. They also held Bainbridge Island and Blake Island.^[7] They were bounded by the Twana to the west on Hood Canal, the Chemakum to the north, the Duwamish to the east, and the Puyallup to the south.^[9]

Some descriptions of the Suquamish land base have included the western parts of Whidbey Island. There is no clear evidence of any Suquamish winter villages on Whidbey Island, so references to Suquamish habitation of the island may be referring to seasonal occupation for fishing, hunting, and gathering, rather than permanent occupation.^[10] One Skokomish informant mentioned that the village at Port Gamble was originally Suquamish, but by the times of the treaty, it was occupied primarily by the Chemakum and Klallam.^[11] Suquamish people recalled in the late 20th century that previous generations seasonally utilized villages on Hood Canal as well.^[9]

Historic village sites

By the 19th century, the Suquamish resided in six winter villages.^[12] The village of dxʷsəq̓ʷəb was home to the famous Old Man House, a 500 feet (150 m) by 60 feet (18 m) longhouse that occomodated several families.^[3]

Suquamish villages in the mid 19th century
Name	Anglicization(s)	Location	Citations
dxʷsəq̓ʷəb	Noo-sohk-um, Suqua	Suquamish	^[6]^[13]^[12]
		near Poulsbo	^[12]
		Colby	^[12]
		Point White	^[12]
		Chico	^[12]
		Phinney Bay	^[12]

Port Madison reservation

The primary land base of the Suquamish today is the Port Madison Indian Reservation, governed by the Suquamish Indian Tribe. Established in 1855, around two hundred tribal members lived on the reservation in 2010 (out of a population of 950 tribal citizens at the time). Many tribal members live in nearby communities, such as Sequim, Bremerton, Port Orchard, Seattle, and Tacoma, as well.^[14]

History

Pre-treaty period

Seattle, who would eventually become the famous chief of the Suquamish, was born around 1786 on Blake Island (Lushootseed: tatču).^[15]^[14]

The Suquamish met George Vancouver in 1792 when he was surveying Admiralty Inlet. He visited a summer camp at the southern point of Bainbridge Island, noting the population at the time to be around 80-100.^[16]

Beginning in the 1830s, the Suquamish began to engage more with European traders. They traded with the Hudson's Bay Company at Fort Nisqually, which was established in 1833. They also came under the influence of Catholic missionaries in the 1830s and 1840s.^[14]

By the mid-19th century, there were about 500 Suquamish people. In 1844, they were listed to have a population of 520 people.^[14] An estimate made in January 1854 counted approximately 485 Suquamish in the general area, based on information from settlers residing in the vicinity.^[17]

Schweabe, the father of Seattle, was involved in wars against the Chemakum in retaliation for encroachment on Suquamish land. They also engaged in confrontations with the Duwamish in an attempt to assert themselves in their territory. Due to these conflicts, the populations of the Chemakum and Duwamish were both reduced.^[14]

Treaty of Point Elliott

The Suquamish were one of the tribes party to the Treaty of Point Elliott on January 22, 1855. They were named in the preamble of the treaty and seven people were designated as signatories for the Suquamish. Kitsap, their chief, took issue with the treaty.^[14] Seattle was designated by the treaty commission as the "head chief" of the Suquamish as well as of the Duwamish and the "allied tribes". Six other Suquamish individuals were designated as "sub-chiefs".^[18]^[14]

Suquamish signatories to the Treaty of Point Elliott^[19]^[13]^[20]

Seattle (siʔaɬ)

Chulwiltan (čul̕xʷiltən)

Mislotche (wahəƛ̕čuʔ, a.k.a. Wahehltchoo )

Sloonokshtan (sɬunukʷštən, a.k.a. Jim)

Moowhahladhu (muxʷaladxʷ, a.k.a. Jack)

Toolehplan (tuliplən)

Hooviltmehtum (hučiltməʔ)

Article 2 of the treaty stipulated for the creation of a reservation at "Noo-sohk-um", or Port Madison,^[13] which was primarily intended for the Suquamish and Duwamish people. Most Suquamish removed to the reservation, as it was located in their territory.^[21] An 1856 estimate by George A. Paige, the Indian Agent in charge of Fort Kitsap, counted roughly 441 Suquamish living on the newly-created reservation. This tally included 117 free adult^[a] males, 91 free male children, 102 free adult females, 97 free female children, as well as enslaved individuals: 8 enslaved adult males, 6 enslaved male children, 12 enslaved adult females, and 8 enslaved female children. In addition, Paige noted around 40 people in six families who were living in the vicinity of Port Orchard who had resisted removal. Together, the total was around 480 Suquamish in 1856.^[17]

The Suquamish were prevented from leaving the reservation during the Puget Sound War of 1855-1856. They could not travel to the rivers where they would normally have acquired large quantities of salmon, and thus starvation became a large problem for the Suquamish. In December of 1856, the Suquamish came to the reservation en masse in an attempt to find provisions.^[22]

Reservation era

Seattle lived on the new Port Madison reservation, was associated with the Suquamish, and was recognized as their leader until his death in 1866.^[18] After his death, the Suquamish selected Jacob Worheltchoo to act as chief. Jacob Worheltchoo was likely a relative of the wahəƛ̕čuʔ who signed the treaty in 1855. This surname name would continue to be associated with the Suquamish community at Port Madison until around 1910, when descendants dropped Wah-hehl-tchoo changed the name to Jacob or Jacobs.^[23]

Even after the Suquamish were confined to the reservation, encroachments from northern tribes continued in the region. In 1859, a Suquamish war party attacked a group of Haida on the western shore of Bainbridge Island in retaliation for previous Haida raiding on Puget Sound.^[14]

Despite reservation bans on alcohol, whiskey sellers continued to attempt to sell alcohol. In 1862, Suquamish leaders seized and burned a boat belonging to rum dealers during a gathering of Suquamish and Duwamish people at Port Madison.^[24]

In the 1870s, the Old Man House was burned down by the federal government, a destruction of the physical and spiritual center of the Suquamish community.^[3]

By 1885, a large decrease in the population of the Port Madison Reservation was noted, either due to a reduction in the Suquamish population, or simply a decrease in the reservation population. The census of 1885 recorded an on-reservation population of 142. By 1910, the population grew to 181. Census rolls of the Suquamish Tribe in 1942 show 169 enrolled members, while 1953 rolls show 183 enrolled members, 1⁄3 of whom were children.^[25] In 1985, the population increased to 577.^[14] In 2011, there were 1,050 enrolled members.^[26] These figures do not include individuals of Suquamish descent who are enrolled in other tribes.

Many Suquamish at this time were working at mills along the coast. One mill at Port Madison paid the Suquamish working there only in square-inch brass pieces which could be exchanged for food at stores.^[27]

20th century

Suquamish people gained some compensation for their lands via the Indian Claims Commission, and the tribe was paid $36,329.51 for ceding their land in the Treaty of Point Elliott.^[28]

Culture

Language

The original language of the Suquamish people is Lushootseed, a Coast Salish language originally spoken on Puget Sound from the Cascades to Hood Canal.^[29] The dialect spoken by the Suquamish is Southern Lushootseed.^[30]

Due to the American government's attempts to assimilate the Suquamish people, the language declined over the 19th and 20th centuries, almost to the point of total loss. Despite this, the Suquamish Tribe is involved in revitalizing the language. The tribe has a Traditional Language Program that teaches Lushootseed to schoolchildren as well as community members.^[29]

Seasonal cycles

Like other Coast Salish peoples, traditional Suquamish life was dominated by seasonal cycles of harvest, religion, trade, and manufacture. The summer was spent harvesting food across the region. As fall came, the Suquamish travelled to participate in fall salmon runs in the territories of their allies. Trade was also a large part of this season, and the Suquamish obtained whale oil, razor clams, salmon, basketry, and beadwork from other tribes. When winter fell, it became a time of repairing tools and crafting baskets and canoes. Winter was also the time of celebrations, where members of the tribe were educated in story, dance, and ceremonies.^[31]

Traditional foodways

Salmon was historically the staple food of the Suquamish. Other fish, such as cod, flounder, perch, trout, herring, and smelt were also part of the traditional diet.^[32] Types of shellfish, including clams, oysters, crabs, and shrimp were also important.^[32] Their territory did not have any large rivers; it was marked by many bays and inlets into which small streams and lakes flow, providing areas for freshwater fishing.^[33] Spring, silver, and dog salmon were all taken in these small creeks.^[34] Dog salmon were caught in Ross Creek, Chico Creek, and Blackjack Creek during their fall runs. Steelhead were speared in the Union River and Curley Creek.^[34]

In the saltwater, springs were trolled for at Apple Cove Point and Hood Canal. Silvers were commonly taken at Apple Cove Point, Dye's Inlet, Liberty Bay, and Sinclair Inlet, as well as at Skunk Bay at the northern end of Kitsap Peninsula.^[34] The saltwater expanse provided a year-round source of seafood, primarily fresh fish and shellfish, but to acquire the great quantities of smoked salmon that accounted for a major portion of the winter foodstores, the Suquamish travelled to rivers in the territory of their relations, such as the Duwamish and Snohomish, to participate in harvesting the fall salmon runs.^[33] Fishing continued to be a large part of the Suquamish economy and lifestyle after colonization.^[35] By 1920, non-Indigenous fishing and canning businesses had begun threatening fish runs in Suquamish waters, as well as across Puget Sound.^[27]

Hunting was a large part of the traditional lifestyle. Swamps were used as duck hunting areas and deer were hunted inland. Berrypicking was often done in conjunction with fishing and hunting trips, with the most important berries being cranberries, huckleberries, blackberries, and salal.^[32]

Society

External relations

The Suquamish are closely tied in culture, language, and alliance, to all of the peoples around them. While the Chemakum spoke a language that was unrelated to those of the Salishan family, Twana is a related Coast Salish language, and their other neighbors, the Duwamish and Puyallup, speak the same Lushootseed language as the Suquamish. Part of the seasonal cycle included travelling to areas such as Hood Canal and upper Puget Sound to visit with relatives and harvest resources not available in their core territory. The Suquamish were noted to have travelled as far as the Fraser River and the San Juan Islands in pre-treaty times.^[33] They also engaged in trade with more distant peoples, such as the Yakama, to whom the Suquamish would often trade smoked salmon and dried clams.^[36]

Notes

^ Older than twelve, according to the census

References

^ "History & Culture". The Suquamish Tribe. Retrieved 2025-03-29.
^ "Frequently Asked Questions". The Suquamish Tribe. Retrieved 2025-03-29.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Ruby, Brown & Collins 2010, p. 326.
^ Bates, Hess & Hilbert 1994, p. 205.
^ Bates, Hess & Hilbert 1994, p. 202.
^ ^a ^b "Home". The Suquamish Tribe. Retrieved 2025-03-29.
^ ^a ^b Lane 1974, p. 1.
^ Lane 1974, p. 15.
^ ^a ^b Lane 1974, p. 3.
^ Lane 1974, p. 1-2.
^ Lane 1974, p. 2-3.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Lane 1974, p. 5.
^ ^a ^b ^c "Treaty of Point Elliott, 1855". Governors Office of Indian Affairs. State of Washington. Retrieved 2023-11-21.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Ruby, Brown & Collins 2010, p. 327.
^ Waterman 2001, p. 232.
^ Lane 1974, p. 16-17.
^ ^a ^b Lane 1974, p. 6.
^ ^a ^b Lane 1974, p. 8-9.
^ Lane 1974, p. 9.
^ Hilbert 1986, pp. 57–59.
^ Lane 1974, p. 10-11.
^ Lane 1974, p. 12-15.
^ Lane 1974, p. 9-10.
^ Ruby, Brown & Collins 2010, p. 327-328.
^ Lane 1974, p. 6-7.
^ Yardley, William (2011-08-12). "A Washington State Indian Tribe Approves Same-Sex Marriage". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2025-03-29.
^ ^a ^b Ruby, Brown & Collins 2010, p. 328.
^ Ruby, Brown & Collins 2010, p. 329.
^ ^a ^b "History & Culture". The Suquamish Tribe. Retrieved 2025-03-29.
^ "About dxʷləšucid Lushootseed". Tulalip Lushootseed. 2014-12-05. Retrieved 2025-03-29.
^ Ruby, Brown & Collins 2010, p. 326-327.
^ ^a ^b ^c Lane 1974, p. 4.
^ ^a ^b ^c Lane 1974, p. 12-16.
^ ^a ^b ^c Lane 1974, p. 18-19.
^ Lane 1974, p. 17-19.
^ Lane 1974, p. 3-4.

Bibliography

Bates, Dawn; Hess, Thom; Hilbert, Vi (1994). Lushootseed Dictionary. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-97323-4. OCLC 29877333.
Hilbert, Vi (taqʷšəblu) (1986). "When Chief Seattle (Siʔaɬ) spoke in 1855". International Conference on Salish (and Neighboring) Languages. 21: 44–59.
Lane, Barbara (1974-12-15). Identity, Treaty Status and Fisheries of the Suquamish Tribe of the Port Madison Reservation (PDF).
Ruby, Robert H.; Brown, John A.; Collins, Cary C. (2010). A Guide to the Indian Tribes of the Pacific Northwest. Civilization of the American Indian. Vol. 173 (3rd ed.). Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 9780806124797.
Waterman, T.T. (2001). Hilbert, Vi; Miller, Jay; Zahir, Zalmai (eds.). sdaʔdaʔ gʷəɬ dibəɬ ləšucid ʔacaciɬtalbixʷ - Puget Sound Geography. Lushootseed Press. ISBN 979-8750945764.

v t e Coast Salish
Peoples	Chawathil Cheam Sts'ailes (WA) Stz'uminus Clemclemaluts Comiaken Copalis Cowlitz Duwamish Esquimalt Halalt Hoh Homalco Humptulips Katzie Khenipsen Kilpahlas Klahoose Klallam Koksilah Kwa-kwa-a-pilt Kwantlen Kway-quit-lam Matsqui Musqueam Nanoose Nuxalk Malahat Sliammon Snuneymuxw Tsawwassen Tsleil-Waututh shíshálh Squamish Semiahmoo Sumas Sq'éwlets Sts'ailes Leq'á:mel Popkum Seabird Island Skwah Skway Shilshole Shxw'ow'hamel Skawahlook Skowkale Soowahlie Squiala Stó꞉lō Tzeachten Yakweakwioose T'souk-e Tsartlip Somena Quamichan Penelakut Lamalcha Saanich Lummi Nooksack Lower Skagit Upper Skagit Skokomish Muckleshoot Sammamish Samish Sauk-Suiattle Snohomish Snoqualmie Skykomish Nisqually Puyallup Stillaquamish Suquamish Swinomish Tulalip Quinault Sahewamish Wynoochee Satsop Nehalem (Tillamook) Siletz Quamichan Somena
Governments	Aitchelitz Band Chawathil First Nation Cheam First Nation Kwantlen First Nation Katzie First Nation Kwaw-kwaw-Apilt First Nation Leq'á:mel First Nation Matsqui First Nation Popkum Band Sq'éwlets First Nation Seabird Island Band Skwah First Nation Skway First Nation Shxw'ow'hamel First Nation Skawahlook First Nation Skowkale First Nation Soowahlie First Nation Squiala First Nation Sto꞉lo Nation Chiefs Council Stó꞉lō Tribal Council Sumas First Nation Tzeachten First Nation Yakweakwioose First Nation Sts'ailes Nation Tsleil-waututh First Nation Musqueam Indian Band Katzie First Nation Kwikwetlem First Nation Semiahmoo First Nation Chemainus First Nation Halalt First Nation Homalco First Nation Klahoose First Nation Malahat First Nation Nanoose First Nation Peters First Nation Tla'amin Nation shíshálh Nation Snuneymuxw First Nation Tsawwassen First Nation Yale First Nation Yakweakwioose First Nation Tseycum First Nation Tsleil-Waututh First Nation Squamish Nation Union Bar First Nation Nuxalk Nation T'Sou-ke Nation Esquimalt First Nation Tsawout First Nation Cowichan Tribes Confederated Tribes of the Grand Ronde Community of Oregon Confederated Tribes of Siletz Confederated Tribes of the Chehalis Cowlitz Indian Tribe Suquamish Tribe Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe Jamestown S'Klallam Tribe Port Gamble S'Klallam Tribe Lummi Nation Makah Tribe Muckleshoot Indian Tribe Nisqually Indian Tribe Quinault Indian Nation Sauk-Suiattle Indian Tribe Samish Indian Nation Skokomish Indian Tribe Snoqualmie Indian Tribe Squaxin Island Tribe Stillaguamish Tribe of Indians Suquamish Tribe Swinomish Indian Tribal Community Tulalip Tribes
Organizations and institutions	Northwest Indian Fisheries Commission South Puget Intertribal Planning Agency Washington Indian Gaming Association Union of British Columbia Indian Chiefs
Culture and society	Music Mythology Art
Languages	Comox Island Comox † Sliammon/Mainland Comox Pentlatch Halkomelem shíshálh Squamish Nooksack North Straits Lummi Saanich Samish Semiahmoo Songhees T'sou-ke Klallam Lushootseed Northern and Southern Twana Cowlitz Quinault