Jump to content

Water supply and sanitation in Turkey

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Water supply and sanitation in Turkey
State Hydraulic Works Headquarters
Data
Access to an improved water source99%[1]
Access to improved sanitation90%[1]

Tap water is drinkable in some parts of Turkey.[2] Water supply in the country is stressed and may become scarce by the 2030s, with most of the country vulnerable to desertification.[3]

Both sit and squat toilets usually have integrated or add-on bidets, and almost all mosques have public toilets. However sewage is not always properly treated before being discharged, and this is one of the causes of pollution of the seas.[4][5][6]

Water supply and sanitation in Turkey is characterized by achievements and challenges. Over the past decades access to drinking water has become almost universal and access to adequate sanitation has also increased substantially. Autonomous utilities have been created in the 16 metropolitan cities of Turkey and cost recovery has been increased, thus providing the basis for the sustainability of service provision. Intermittent supply, which was common in many cities, has become less frequent.

Turkey has between 2,500[7] and 1,350 cubic metres of water available per person per year, but this varies a lot by region,[8] with some areas short such as water supply and sanitation in Istanbul, partly due to urbanisation and climate change in Turkey.[9] Over three-quarters of the freshwater used is by agriculture[10]: 29 , and charging for it has been suggested.[11]: 64–66 [12]

Remaining challenges include the need to further increase wastewater treatment, to reduce the high level of non-revenue water hovering around 50% and to expand access to adequate sanitation in rural areas.[13]

There is a water management plan to 2028.[10] Institutionally the sector is fragmented. Policy, regulatory and planning functions are dispersed between five Ministries, the State Hydraulic Works (DSI) and the State Planning Organization under the Prime Minister's Office. Service provision is the responsibility of about 2,400 municipalities and 16 utilities in the largest cities. External cooperation has played and continues to play a major role for water and sanitation in Turkey. Germany, France, the European Union and the World Bank are the major external partners.

Access

[edit]

In 2015, in Turkey, access to water was universal. Regarding sanitation, 95% of the population have access to "improved" sanitation, 98% of the urban population and 86% of the rural population. Subsequently, there are still, approximately, 4 million people without access to "improved" sanitation.[14][15]

Access to water supply and sanitation in Turkey is high. Based on household surveys and census results, the Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation estimates that 100% of the Turkish urban population had access to an improved water source in 2007. In rural areas, where less than a third of the population lives, 96% had access.[16] In urban areas 97% had access to improved sanitation facilities, compared to 75% in rural areas. In urban areas, 95% were connected to sewers, the remaining 5% being served by septic tanks.[17]

Wastewater treatment

[edit]

There are almost 1200 wastewater treatment plants.[10]: 62  5% of treated wastewater is reused and there is a 30% target for 2030.[10]: 67  Untreated wastewater is a cause of marine mucilage in the Marmara Sea.[18]

Water resources and water use

[edit]

As rainfall, evaporation and runoff varies a lot from year to year it is hard to predict river flow.[19] In 2008, 4.56 billion m3 of water was abstracted by municipalities or bought by them in order to be distributed by the local government. Of this amount, 40% was abstracted from dams, 28% from wells, 23% from springs, 4% from rivers, and 5% from lakes. 111.4 billion m3 of drinking water was sold to 20 million subscribers, and 4.8 billion Turkish Lira revenue was obtained.[20] This implies that the average level of non-revenue water – water produced that was not billed – was 48% ((4.56-2.4)x100/4.56) and that the average tariff was 2 Turkish Lira per cubic meter (1.10 Euro/m3). According to the results of the 2008 Municipal Water Statistics Survey, water abstraction per capita was 215 liters per day in 2008.[20] Actual billed consumption taking into account non-revenue water was 52% of that level, or 112 liters per day. In 2021 underground dams are being built against drought.[21][unreliable source?] Old city water networks need improvement[22] and more than a third of water is leaked.[23] There are groundwater regulations but they are hard to enforce.[19]

Municipal water use accounts for about 11% of total water use in Turkey, compared to 77% used by agriculture and 12% by industry.[10]: 29  Total water withdrawals for all uses accounted for only 17% of total available water resources in an average year (average 1977–2001). Municipal water use thus accounted for only about 3% of available water resources. However, water availability is highly seasonal and is not equally distributed throughout the country. Local and regional water shortages occur despite ample average water availability. For example, in 2007 a severe drought hit the entire Mediterranean coast as well as Central Anatolia and threatened the water supply of Istanbul and Ankara.[24][25] In some areas tourist water use has been blamed for shortages.[23] Some suggest filling swimming pools with seawater whereas others suggest desalination.[26]

In some cities rainwater cannot flow through the surface to aquifers: collecting more rainwater and using treated water for irrigation or cleaning streets has been suggested.[23] There are flows of water embedded in food,[3] mostly wheat, barley and maize.[27] Rainwater collection systems are required on larger new buildings.[19]

Water budget

[edit]
Water Budget Components of Large River Basins of Turkey (1981–2010)[28]
Basin Name Drainage Area (km2) Million m3
Precipitation Flow ETa Infiltration
1 Maritza-Ergene 14444.1 8561.4 1858.9 6382.7 319.8
2 Marmara 23107.1 16186.8 7537.9 8405.5 243.4
3 Susurluk 24332.0 15645.1 4227.2 8776.5 2641.4
4 North Aegean 9973.6 6051.4 1500.5 3969.0 581.8
5 Gediz 17034.0 9002.9 1536.3 6916.7 549.9
6 Kucuk Menderes 7059.7 4323.4 527.1 3260.3 536.1
7 Buyuk Menderes 26133.2 15889.0 2993.3 10279.4 2616.4
8 West Mediterranean 21223.9 15705.5 6965.1 7458.6 1281.7
9 Antalya 20330.8 15670.5 13076.2 2255.4 338.9
10 Burdur 6306.2 3020.3 264.4 1630.0 1125.9
11 Akarcay 7982.6 3805.7 325.6 2290.1 1190.0
12 Sakarya 63357.8 29352.3 5290.3 17254.4 6807.6
13 West Black Sea 28929.8 22017.6 9905.1 11534.0 578.6
14 Yesilirmak 39628.0 20170.9 6584.6 11173.6 2412.7
15 Kizilirmak 82197.3 37126.8 6123.6 19956.7 11046.6
16 Konya Closed 50037.8 19524.8 2649.7 11294.3 5580.7
17 West Mediterranean 21807.0 12709.8 8250.4 3139.4 1319.9
18 Seyhan 22241.6 12935.4 6778.1 3960.8 2196.5
19 Asi 7912.4 6556.9 1825.9 3743.5 987.6
20 Ceyhan 21598.5 14025.6 7349.4 6338.1 338.0
21 Euphrates-Tigris 176657.0 99900.5 55577.3 43168.5 1154.6
22 East Black Sea 22844.6 22844.8 16476.3 4318.3 2050.1
23 Coruh 20248.7 14286.0 7047.1 5858.3 1380.6
24 Aras 28114.6 13593.2 4182.2 8370.2 1040.8
25 Van Closed 17977.0 9164.3 2263.2 6823.7 77.4
Total 781479.4 448070.8 181115.7 218558.0 48397.0

Drinking water quality

[edit]

In the 2010s there was a risk of persistent organic pollutants. [29]

Climate change

[edit]

Climate change in Turkey is putting pressure on water resources.[30]

Earthquakes

[edit]

Lack of clean water after earthquakes in Turkey can risk infections.[31]

[edit]

Policy and regulation

[edit]

The state owns water sources and can lease them but it is alleged that leasing has not been transparent: water regulations are complicated and ambiguous, as many regulations have been applied since the 1926 water law.[32] Turkey is not aligned with the EU Drinking Water Directive.[33]

There is no single water and sanitation law in Turkey, and there is no single institution charged with developing policies for water supply and sanitation or for regulating the sector. A number of laws on the environment, health and local government together form the legal framework of the sector. Local governments play a central role in the sector as service provider, partially mobilizing resources for investment financing from their own revenues and being responsible for the elaboration of location-specific Master Plans, feasibility studies and for the procurement of the necessary works.

At the national level, a number of government entities form the institutional framework of the sector. The State Planning Organization under the Prime Minister's Office is in charge of general investment planning through Five-Year Plans; the Ministry of Interior is in charge of supervising local governments through its General Directorate of Local Authorities; the Ministry of Public Works and Settlement controls the state-owned Bank of the Provinces, a source of financing for water supply and sanitation; the Ministry of Environment and Forestry is in charge of developing water resources as well as environmental monitoring and enforcement; the Ministry of Agriculture through the drinking water unit in the General Directorate for Rural Services (KHGM) is in charge of planning, financing and building rural drinking water supply; and the Ministry of Health is, in charge of monitoring drinking water quality.[34][35]

Service provision

[edit]

The 16 largest cities in Turkey each have legally separate and financially autonomous municipal water and sanitation companies called Su ve Kanalizasyon Idaresi (SKIs). These utilities were created during the 1980s and 1990s, beginning with the establishment of ISKI in Istanbul in 1981. The boards of these companies are typically chaired by the mayor. Smaller cities provide services directly through municipal water and sewer departments. SKIs exist in the following metropolitan cities: Adana, ASKI – Ankara, Antalya, Bursa, ISKI – Istanbul, DISKI – Diyarbakir, Kayseri, Denizli, Eskişehir, Gaziantep, İzmir, Konya, Malatya, Mersin, Samsun, and Sanliurfa.[citation needed]

Private sector participation

[edit]

Private sector participation in the provision of water supply and sanitation in Turkey is mostly limited to the operation of water and wastewater treatment plants without direct contact with customers.

Bulk water supply

[edit]

The State Hydraulic Works (Turkish: Devlet Su İşleri or DSİ) is an agency under the Ministry of Environment and Forestry responsible for the utilization of country's water resources. Besides water resources assessment and monitoring, hydropower production and bulk water supply for agriculture, DSİ is also responsible by law for the supply of domestic and industrial water to cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants. As of the 2000 census, there were 55 such cities in Turkey. DSİ supplied water to 26 million people in 45 cities.[36]

As of the beginning of 2005, DSİ supplied annually a total of around 2.5 km3 domestic water complying with drinking water standards. This figure will reach 5.3 km3 with completion of the projects which are under construction, or at the final design and planning stages. Water supply projects developed by DSİ meet one third of the requirements for domestic and industrial water consumption.[37]

International basins

[edit]

Water flows into Turkey in the Meriç-Ergene and Asi basins, and out in the Çoruh, Kura-Aras and Fırat-Dicle basins.[38]: 401 

Agriculture

[edit]
This section is an excerpt from Agriculture in Turkey § Water.[edit]
Two large channels of water flow slowly from a low sloping dam with several pipes at one end of the dam
The Atatürk Dam is the largest of the 22 dams in the Southeastern Anatolia Project, which includes the irrigation of 1.82 million hectares of land.

At around 1300 m3 freshwater per person per year, Turkey is water-stressed and at risk of water scarcity, mainly due to wasteful irrigation.[39][40][41] Water pricing is being considered.[42] Desertification has been modelled and the risk has been mapped,[43] showing that high-risk regions are Karapınar, Aralık, Ceylanpınar and Lake Tuz basins.[44] Solar power is occasionally used to pump water to combat drought,[45] which can reduce planting of crops such as corn and potatoes.[46] The irrigation part of the Eastern Anatolia Project is controversial.[47]

Farmers mostly use surface irrigation, which loses 35% to 60% of water through evaporation, seepage, and leakage.[48] This old-fashioned irrigation may quickly deplete groundwater and run off the farm. Runoff is causing nitrogen pollution in some river basins.[49] This can cause eutrophication which threatens aquatic life[50] and a project is ongoing to map and combat this.[51] As of 2023 73% of Turkey's water supply is used for irrigation, and it has been estimated that this is double what it would be if all farmers used drip irrigation.[52] Farmers are reluctant because of the installation cost of drip installation, and more government support has been suggested.[41] Shrinking lakes have been blamed both on reduced precipitation due to climate change and incorrect crops using more water, such as corn and sugar beet.[53] Most irrigation is managed by unions.[54] Charging for water used by agriculture has been suggested.[55]: 64–66  Some farmers complain that drip irrigation is too expensive.[56] Olives need less irrigation than pistachios, almonds and grapes.[57] There is much more scope for water efficiency improvements in agriculture than other sectors.[58]

Efficiency

[edit]

The level of non-revenue water (physical and commercial water losses) in Turkish cities is much higher than in other OECD countries except for Mexico. For example, in 2006 it was 45% in Kayseri, 51% in Diyarbakir and 69% in Adana.[59] The level of non-revenue water in Istanbul decreased from more than 50% prior to 1994 to 34% in 2000 due to large investments in pipe replacement.[60]

Financial aspects

[edit]

Tariffs and cost recovery

[edit]

Water and sanitation tariffs in Turkish cities are set by local governments. For residential users most cities charge increasing-block tariffs. Commercial users and public institutions are charged a linear tariff that is close to or higher than the highest block of the residential tariff. During the 1990s, a period of high inflation in Turkey, some cities have indexed tariffs to inflation to prevent an erosion of tariffs. Under the indexation system tariffs are automatically increased every three months in line with the increase of the consumer price index. The level of cost recovery of utilities in Turkey is generally high, and some of them post moderate profits.[citation needed] Tariffs vary across cities, for example Ankara charges a flat rate per litre whereas Istanbul and İzmir charge an increasing rate.[61] Charging for water used by agriculture has been suggested.[62]: 64–66 

Investment

[edit]

Annual investments in the Turkish water and sanitation sector at the beginning of the 2000s stood at about US$1 billion per year, or about US$13 per capita and year. The cost for Turkey to comply with the Environmental Acquis Communautaire in water supply and sanitation has been estimated to be in the order of €34 billion for 2007-23 or annual investments of about €2 billion. Additional investments in industrial pollution control would be in the order or €15 billion.[13]

External Cooperation

[edit]

The major external partners of Turkey in water supply and sanitation are the European Union, France and Germany.

European Union

[edit]

The European Union provides 134.3 million Euro of grants in 2007-09 for water supply and sanitation as part of its Instrument for Pre-Accession Assistance (IPA). The first project to be approved under IPA for water and sanitation in Turkey was for a Wastewater Treatment Plant in Ordu. A priority for IPA is the reduction of water losses.[63]

The European Investment Bank also provides loans for water supply and sanitation in Turkey. As of 2010 it had several projects under implementation, of which the most recent one is the Samsun wastewater project signed in 2005 supported with a Euro 30 million loan. In addition, an Environmental Framework Loan for Iller Bank estimated to reach Euro 150 million for water, sanitation and solid waste management was under preparation in 2010.[64]

France

[edit]

France provides subsidized loans for municipal infrastructure in Turkish cities through the Agence Française de Développement (AFD). In 2009 AFD provided loans to the cities of Istanbul (120 million Euro), Kayseri (22 million Euro) and Konya (50 million Euro) for urban development, including water supply and sanitation. France also provides a 16 million Euro loan for the treatment of sludge from a wastewater treatment plant in Bursa.[65]

Germany

[edit]

Between the late 1980s and 2006 the German government and the state-owned development Bank KfW provided 780 million Euros in grants and soft loans for water supply and sanitation in Turkey with a particular focus on cities in the poorer parts of Turkey. German development cooperation is being implemented by GIZ (technical cooperation) and KfW (financial cooperation) on behalf of the German government.

Germany has financed sanitation projects in Isparta, Tarsus, Siirt, Batman, Van and Diyarbakir, Fethiye and Malatya[66] as well as water supply projects in Istanbul and Adana. In Ankara and Kayseri both water supply and sanitation projects have been supported. Projects are also under implementation in Sivas, Siirt, Batman and Van. The first mechanical-biological wastewater treatment plant in a Turkish metropolitan city, commissioned in 1997 in Ankara, has been financed by German financial cooperation.

GIZ has supported capacity development of staff working in municipal utilities in commercial and technical aspects through a project implemented from 2002 to 2006 in cooperation with the training institute TODAIE.[67]

World Bank

[edit]

The World Bank currently finances a municipal services project implemented by Iller Bank. The project, initially approved in 2005, received a first loan of US$275 million and additional financing of US$240 million in 2010. The project finances investments in the cities of Antalya (water supply and sewerage), Denizli(water supply, sewerage and storm water drainage), Mersin (water supply), Beypazari (water supply, sewerage and wastewater treatment), Istanbul (sewerage in the Akfirat area), Kayseri (solid waste landfill) and Kirsehir (water, sewerage and storm water drainage).[68]

The Istanbul Municipal Services Project, supported through a US$336 million loan and approved in 2007, had 43% of its proceeds earmarked for water supply and sanitation.

In the past the World Bank financed, among others, water and sanitation projects in Istanbul from the 1970s to the 1990s, in İzmir and Ankara in the late 1980s and 1990s, as well as in Antalya and Bursa in the late 1990s as well as in the early 2000s. The outcome of the project in Antalya, which involved a public-private partnership, was rated by the World Bank as unsatisfactory, because it was too big, had too many objectives, because of poor risk allocation between the public and the private partners and because there was a mismatch between revenues in local currency and debt in foreign currency.[69]

Provinces

[edit]

Ankara

[edit]

Per person water use is higher than the global average.[70]

Istanbul

[edit]

Water supply and sanitation in Istanbul is stressed by the expansion of the city.[71] It is the responsibility of the public utility ISKI (Istanbul Su ve Kanalizasyon Idaresi) created in 1981.

Water sources

[edit]

Nearly all of Istanbul's drinking water (97%) comes from surface water collected in reservoirs. Its most important water sources are the Omerli-Darlik system on the Asian side and the Terkos-Alibeykoy system on the European side. Both systems consist of dams, reservoirs, water treatment plants and pipelines. Many of the reservoirs that supply Istanbul are located within the metropolitan area and are exposed to pollution from settlements without adequate sanitation. Water quality is theoretically controlled by conservation zones around the reservoirs which limit construction and industrial activities in four concentric buffer zones with increasingly strict regulations the closer the zones are to the reservoirs. However, there is little enforcement of these regulations in the face of rapid and often unplanned urbanization. Illegal settlements sprang up around the reservoirs, fueled by land speculation. Subsequently they became de facto legalized with their own municipal administrations elected mayors.[72][73]

Water pollution crisis and response

[edit]

In 1993/94, a severe water shortage had occurred after health authorities forbade ISKI to use water from the Elmali reservoir because of its high concentration of ammonium caused by the discharge of untreated wastewater into the reservoir.[73] ISKI responded by planning and building new reservoirs located further away from the city and associated water treatment plants and pipelines, notably the Istranca dams in the Black Sea basin on the European side of the Bosphorus, and the Yeşilçay Regulator in the Black Sea basin on the Asian side. With these and other investments the available water supply was increased to 1,170 million m3 per year.[74]

The Melen system

[edit]

However, given the growth of Istanbul, additional water resources were still needed. Therefore the Melen System is being developed to cover the long term water demand of İstanbul. The first stage supplying 268 million m3 was completed in 2007 with Japanese financing. A second and third stage are expected to bring a total of 1,180 billion m3 for all three phases to meet the water demand of the city until the year 2040, doubling the amount of water supplied prior to the Melen system. Also, a 5.5 km tunnel under the Bosporus will transfer water to the European side.[75] According to monitoring by four metropolitan agencies drinking water quality is good, reportedly surpassing Turkish as well as EU standards. According to a 2004 survey, 35% of customers stated that they drink water from the tap, up from only 10% in 2000. During that period water quality had improved due to network repairs and the completion of new drinking water treatment plants.[60]

Sanitation

[edit]

In 2004 Istanbul's wastewater system consisted of 9,602 km of sewers, 17 pumping stations, 7 pre-treatment plants and 5 biological wastewater treatment plants. 95% of the wastewater collected was being treated. Treated wastewaters are discharged into the Bosphorus. They are discharged into the lower layer, where the flow is towards the Black Sea in the North. The Black Sea has a much greater assimilative capacity than the ecologically more sensitive Marmara Sea to the South. For discharges into the Marmara Sea more expensive tertiary treatment is needed, while primary treatment is sufficient for disposal into the Black Sea.[60] The sewer system consists, in principle, of separate sanitary sewers and stormwater drains. However, in reality there are illegal cross-connections so that untreated wastewater reaches the stormwater drains and contributes to the pollution of drinking water reservoirs.[73]

İzmir

[edit]

İzmir is at risk of shortages.[76]

History and culture

[edit]

The Hittites built Eflatun Pınar. Salt Research is attempting to integrate the arts and sciences in 2025.[77]

Aqueduct near Aspendos
Ephesus Curetes Street Latrinae Cat

See also

[edit]
[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation:Data Archived 2010-03-23 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved August 23, 2010.
  2. ^ Karakaş Ulusoy, Canan (2024), Leal Filho, Walter; Salvia, Amanda Lange; Portela de Vasconcelos, Claudio Ruy (eds.), "The Importance of Being Returned from Bottled Water to Tap Water in Turkey in Terms of Sustainable Development", An Agenda for Sustainable Development Research, World Sustainability Series, Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland, pp. 265–276, doi:10.1007/978-3-031-65909-6_16, ISBN 978-3-031-65909-6, retrieved 2025-07-29
  3. ^ a b "Türkiye on track to become water-poor nation by 2030, experts warn - Türkiye News". Hürriyet Daily News. 2025-08-05. Retrieved 2025-08-05.
  4. ^ "Pollution in Turkish Seas - TUDAV". 2020-06-18. Retrieved 2025-07-29.
  5. ^ "Pollution crisis at Izmir Bay: Sea choked by dirt as municipality faces penalties". Türkiye Today. Retrieved 2025-07-29.
  6. ^ Akdemir, Tolga; Dalgıç, Göktuğ (2021). "The impact of the marine sewage outfalls on the sediment quality: The Black Sea and the Marmara case". Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences. 28 (1): 238–246. Bibcode:2021SJBS...28..238A. doi:10.1016/j.sjbs.2020.09.055. ISSN 1319-562X. PMC 7785456. PMID 33424303.
  7. ^ https://waterfootprintimplementation.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/WFA_Middle-East_Final-report.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  8. ^ "Türkiye's Policy on Water Issues".
  9. ^ "What happens if Istanbul's water supplies run dry?". www.bbc.com. 2025-02-21. Retrieved 2025-07-30.
  10. ^ a b c d e "SU YÖNETİMİ" (PDF).
  11. ^ "Water Efficiency Strategy Document and Action Plan in the Framework of Adaptation to the Changing Climate (2023 – 2033)" (PDF).
  12. ^ Bildirici, Mehmet Emin (May 2024). DETERMINANTS OF WATER USE IN AGRICULTURE: AN ANALYSIS OF IRRIGATION UNIONS IN TÜRKİYE (Master Thesis thesis) (in Turkish). Middle East Technical University.
  13. ^ a b Ministry of Environment and Forestry: EU Integrated Environmental Approximation Strategy Archived 2012-03-12 at the Wayback Machine, 2007, p. 17
  14. ^ "WASHwatch.org - Turkey". washwatch.org. Retrieved 2017-03-22.
  15. ^ WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation
  16. ^ Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation:Turkey:Water Supply
  17. ^ Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation:Turkey:Sanitation
  18. ^ "Sea snot: The noxious plague troubling Istanbul's coast". www.bbc.com. 2025-07-11. Retrieved 2025-07-21.
  19. ^ a b c "Water Resources in Turkey". Fanack Water. Retrieved 2025-08-05.
  20. ^ a b Turkish Statistical Institute:MUNICIPAL WATER STATISTICS, 2008
  21. ^ Ateş, Hazal (2020-12-14). "Turkey's action plan to fight drought focuses on saving water sources". Daily Sabah. Retrieved 2021-01-03.
  22. ^ "Water Infrastructure in Turkey". Fanack Water. Retrieved 2025-08-05.
  23. ^ a b c "Why severe water shortages in Izmir, Cesme, Foca disrupt daily life". Türkiye Today. Retrieved 2025-08-04.
  24. ^ Drought and negligence threaten Turkey's lakes, rivers, 11 May 2007
  25. ^ Turkey: Drought Raises Concern about a Possible Environmental Catastrophe, September 16, 2007
  26. ^ "Water shortages spell trouble on Turkey's tourist coast". France 24. 2025-08-05. Retrieved 2025-08-05.
  27. ^ Muratoglu, Abdullah; Avanoz, Zehra (2021-04-22). "Spatial analysis of blue and green water footprints of agricultural crop patterns: Turkey". Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Water Management. 174 (6): 291–308. Bibcode:2021ICEWM.174..291M. doi:10.1680/jwama.20.00085. ISSN 1741-7589.
  28. ^ Selek, Bülent; Aksu, Hakan (2020). "Water Resources Potential of Turkey". Water Resources of Turkey. World Water Resources. Vol. 2. Springer International Publishing. pp. 241–256. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-11729-0_8. ISBN 978-3-030-11728-3.
  29. ^ Vasseghian, Yasser; Hosseinzadeh, Sevda; Khataee, Alireza; Dragoi, Elena-Niculina (2021-11-20). "The concentration of persistent organic pollutants in water resources: A global systematic review, meta-analysis and probabilistic risk assessment". Science of the Total Environment. 796 149000. Bibcode:2021ScTEn.79649000V. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.149000. ISSN 0048-9697.
  30. ^ "Turkey's Policy on Water Issues". Republic of Turkey Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Retrieved 2021-01-03.
  31. ^ Yoltay, Hatice Eda; Özsezer, Gözde; Mermer, Gülengül; Giersbergen, Meryem Yavuz van (June 2025). "Prevalence of Hand Hygiene in Post-Disaster Environments and Affecting Factors: A Study on Earthquake-Affected Populations in Turkey". Prehospital and Disaster Medicine. 40 (3): 136–146. doi:10.1017/S1049023X25101246. ISSN 1049-023X. PMID 40625279.
  32. ^ "Water Grabbing Through Infrastructures and Institutions in Turkey".
  33. ^ "COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT Türkiye 2024 Report" (PDF).
  34. ^ Ministry of Health: Regulation Concerning Water Intended for Human Consumption
  35. ^ Turkish: General Directorate for Rural Services
  36. ^ Yakup Darama. "Water Issues and the Role of State Hydraulic Works (DSI) in Water Resources Development in Turkey" (PDF).
  37. ^ DSI Domestic water
  38. ^ "Potential Status and Sustainability of Water Resources in Turkey" (PDF).
  39. ^ "Per capita freshwater in Turkey reduced by three quarters". Bianet. Retrieved 2023-11-10.
  40. ^ "Water Challenges in Turkey". Fanack Water. Retrieved 2023-11-10.
  41. ^ a b "Main Cause of Water Waste in Turkey: Agricultural Irrigation". İklim Haber. 29 March 2023. Retrieved 2023-11-10.
  42. ^ Agricultural Policy Monitoring and Evaluation 2022. OECD. 2022. doi:10.1787/7f4542bf-en. ISBN 9789264998681. S2CID 264550308. Retrieved 2023-04-12.
  43. ^ "Combating Desertification and Erosion activities in Turkey" (PDF). Ministry of Environment, Urbanisation and Climate Change. 2017.
  44. ^ "Turkey Monitors Desertification with the Model Developed by TÜBİTAK BİLGEM YTE". Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Archived from the original on 7 October 2022. Retrieved 4 October 2023.
  45. ^ Brown, Hannah (5 January 2023). "How this Turkish city is transforming its energy supply". euronews. Retrieved 2023-01-22.
  46. ^ "Drought might hinder planting of some crops: Farmers". Hürriyet Daily News. 13 January 2023. Retrieved 2023-04-13.
  47. ^ "Turkey Plan To Build Dams On Aras River To Turn 3 Iranian Provinces Into Deserts: Univ. Professor". Iran Front Page. 23 May 2023. Retrieved 2023-11-04.
  48. ^ Ergur, Semih (30 September 2023). "97% of Turkish Farmers Reported Diminishing Harvests and Yields Due to Climate Change-Related Impacts".
  49. ^ Muratoglu, Abdullah (10 November 2020). "Grey water footprint of agricultural production: An assessment based on nitrogen surplus and high-resolution leaching runoff fractions in Turkey". Science of the Total Environment. 742 140553. Bibcode:2020ScTEn.74240553M. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140553. ISSN 0048-9697. PMID 32615375. S2CID 220331395.
  50. ^ Varol, Memet; Tokatlı, Cem (15 October 2021). "Impact of paddy fields on water quality of Gala Lake (Turkey): An important migratory bird stopover habitat". Environmental Pollution. 287 117640. Bibcode:2021EPoll.28717640V. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2021.117640. ISSN 0269-7491. PMID 34182394.
  51. ^ "Nepiz Project | Nitrate Action Plans Protection of Waters Against Agricultural Pollution". www.nepiz.com. Retrieved 2023-11-11.
  52. ^ "A Water Crisis Of Turkey's Own Making". menafn.com. 4 April 2023. Retrieved 2023-04-13.
  53. ^ "Son 30 yılda Türkiye'nin büyük göllerinin yüzde 54'ü küçüldü" [54 percent of Turkey's large lakes have shrunk in the last 30 years]. BBC News Türkçe (in Turkish). Retrieved 2023-05-30.
  54. ^ Bildirici, Mehmet Emin (May 2024). DETERMINANTS OF WATER USE IN AGRICULTURE: AN ANALYSIS OF IRRIGATION UNIONS IN TÜRKİYE (Master Thesis thesis) (in Turkish). Middle East Technical University.
  55. ^ "Water Efficiency Strategy Document and Action Plan in the Framework of Adaptation to the Changing Climate (2023 – 2033)" (PDF).
  56. ^ "Water Grabbing Through Infrastructures and Institutions in Turkey".
  57. ^ Aydın, Yusuf (2022-07-07). "Quantification of water requirement of some major crops under semi-arid climate in Turkey". PeerJ. 10 e13696. doi:10.7717/peerj.13696. ISSN 2167-8359.
  58. ^ "Water Resources in Turkey". Fanack Water. Retrieved 2025-08-05.
  59. ^ KfW Ex-post evaluations
  60. ^ a b c Altinbilek, Dogan (2006). "Water Management in Istanbul". International Journal of Water Resources Development. 22 (2): 241–253. Bibcode:2006IJWRD..22..241A. doi:10.1080/07900620600709563. hdl:11511/58056. S2CID 153480716.
  61. ^ Güven, Mahmut Akif; Başaran, Alparslan Abdurrahman (2024-01-31). "Household Water Consumption and Tariff Structure: The Analysis of Türkiye's Three Metropolitan Cities". Sosyoekonomi. 32 (59): 151–172. doi:10.17233/sosyoekonomi.2024.01.07. ISSN 1305-5577.
  62. ^ "Water Efficiency Strategy Document and Action Plan in the Framework of Adaptation to the Changing Climate (2023 – 2033)" (PDF).
  63. ^ European Commission: IPA Environment Operational Programme in Turkey
  64. ^ European Investment Bank:Water, sewerage and solid waste projects in Turkey 2002-2010. Retrieved September 14, 2010.
  65. ^ (in French) Construction d'une station de traitement des boues d'épuration à Bursa
  66. ^ KfW: Sewage Disposal in Diyarbakir
  67. ^ In German: GTZ:Tuerkei: Qualifizierung Kommunaler Dienste [dead link]
  68. ^ World Bank: Additional Financing for the Municipal Services Project, Annex 3
  69. ^ World Bank:Implementation completion report on a loan in the amount of US$ 100.0 million to the Republic of Turkey for Antalya water supply and sanitation project, May 28, 2004
  70. ^ "Ankara has 180 days of water left, officials warn - Türkiye News". Hürriyet Daily News. 2025-03-31. Retrieved 2025-07-30.
  71. ^ "What happens if Istanbul's water supplies run dry?". www.bbc.com. 2025-02-21. Retrieved 2025-03-16.
  72. ^ Ali Demirci and Anya Butt:Historical Overview and Current Trends in Istanbul's Water Supply Development, Globalization And Water Resources Management: The Changing Value of Water, August 6–8, Awra/Iwlri-University of Dundee International Specialty Conference 2001. Retrieved September 14, 2010.
  73. ^ a b c (German) Şenda Kara and Frank Alleweldt:Trinwasserversorgung und Stadtexpansion:Der Fall Istanbul (Drinking Water Supply and Urban Expansion:The Case of Istanbul), in: Wasser - Abwasser 136 (1995), Nr. 7, pp. 345-353
  74. ^ Istanbul Water Basin Management and European Union Water Framework Directive, 2007, International Congress on River Basin Management, by Dursun Ali Çodur, General Director, Istanbul Water and Sewage Administration (ISKI), Mehmet Patan, Planning Director, Istanbul Water and Sewage Administration (ISKI), İSKİ APK Director Nevzat Uyaroğlu, Research Director, Istanbul Water and Sewage Administration (ISKI), Orhan C. Gőktaş, Professional Environmental Engineer, Istanbul Water and Sewage Administration (ISKI), Deniz Aydin, Professional Environmental Engineer, Istanbul Water and Sewage Administration (ISKI). Retrieved September 14, 2010.
  75. ^ XIVst Regional Directorate of State Hydraulic Works -Istanbul. Retrieved September 14, 2010.
  76. ^ "İzmir's Çeşme enforces scheduled water cuts amid critical shortage - Türkiye News". Hürriyet Daily News. 2025-07-24. Retrieved 2025-07-30.
  77. ^ "Forum: Water Assemblies | SALT". saltonline.org. Retrieved 2025-08-05.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Turkey&oldid=1304346846#Istanbul"