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Nekhen (/ˈnɛkən/, Ancient Egyptian: nḫn), also known as Hierakonpolis (/ˌhaɪərəˈkɒnpəlɪs/; Greek: Ἱεράκων πόλις, romanized: Hierákōn pólis, meaning City of Hawks or City of Falcons,[1][2] a reference to Horus;[3] Egyptian Arabic: الكوم الأحمر, romanized: el-Kōm el-Aḥmar, lit. 'the Red Mound'[4]) was the religious and political capital of Upper Egypt at the end of prehistoric Egypt (c. 3200–3100 BC) and probably also during the Early Dynastic Period (c. 3100–2686 BC).

Located in Upper Egypt about 100 kilometers south of the modern-day city of Luxor, Nekhen has been the subject of extensive archeological research over the past one and half centuries, and has yielded a large number of artifacts that give a greater understanding to this period of ancient Egyptian history. The city was the center of cult worship of the god Horus, who is said to have his origins in Nekhen as its tutelary deity. Tombs, temples, breweries, houses, and other structures have all been discovered that date back to the predynastic era. The oldest known tomb with painted decoration, known as the Painted Tomb, is located in Nekhen and is thought to date to c. 3500–3200 BC. It shares distinctive imagery with artifacts from the Gerzeh culture.

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History

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The first settlement at Nekhen dates from either the predynastic Amratian culture (c. 4400 BC) or, perhaps, during the late Badarian culture (c. 5000 BC). At its height, from c. 3400 BC, Nekhen had at least 5,000 and possibly as many as 10,000 inhabitants. Most of Upper Egypt then became unified under rulers from Abydos during the Naqada III period (3200–3000 BCE) at the expense of rival cities, especially Nekhen (Hierakonpolis).[5] The conflicts leading to the supremacy of Abydos may be what appear on numerous reliefs from the Naqada II period, such as the Gebel el-Arak Knife, or the frieze of Tomb 100 at Nekhen.[6]

Nekhen was the center of the cult of a falcon deity, Horus of Nekhen, and raised one of the most ancient Egyptian temples in Egypt. It was at here that the body of Horus was supposedly entombed, and Horus was often deeply connected and associated Nekhen and Upper Egypt in general. Given Horus' vital importance in the Egyptian pantheon and for monarchical legitimacy, Nekhen retained its importance as the center for this divine patron of the kings long after the site had otherwise declined.[7]

There are later tombs at Nekhen, dating to the Middle Kingdom, Second Intermediate Period, and New Kingdom. In the painted tomb of Horemkhauef a biographical inscription reporting a journey to the capital by him was found. He lived during the Second Intermediate Period. Because it had a strong association with Egyptian religious ideas about kingship, the temple of Horus at Nekhen was used as late as the Ptolemaic Kingdom,[8] persisting as a religious center throughout the thousands of years of Ancient Egyptian culture.

Archaeology

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The ruins of the city were originally excavated toward the end of the nineteenth century by the English archaeologists James Quibell and Frederick W. Green. Quibell and Green discovered the "Main Deposit", a foundation deposit beneath the temple,[9] in 1894. Quibell originally was trained under Flinders Petrie, the father of modern Egyptology, however, he failed to follow Petrie's methods. The temple was a difficult site to excavate to begin with, so his excavation was poorly conducted and then, poorly documented. Specifically, the situational context of the items therein is poorly recorded and often, the reports of Quibell and Green are in contradiction.[10]

The most famous artifact commonly associated with the main deposit, the Narmer Palette, now is thought probably not to have been in the main deposit at all. Quibell's report made in 1900 put the palette in the deposit, but Green's report in 1902 put it about one to two yards away. Green's version is substantiated by earlier field notes (Quibell kept none), so it is now the accepted record of events.[11]

Human figurine from the main deposit at Nekhen, Ashmolean Museum

The main deposit dates to the early Old Kingdom,[10] but the artistic style of the objects in the deposit indicate that they were from Naqada III and were moved into the deposit at a later date. The other important item in the deposit clearly dates to the late prehistoric.[12] This object, the Scorpion Macehead, depicts a king known only by the ideogram for scorpion, now called Scorpion II, participating in what seems to be a ritual irrigation ceremony.[13] Although the Narmer Palette is more famous because it shows the first king to wear both the crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt, the Scorpion Macehead indicates some early military hostility with the north by showing dead lapwings, the symbol of Lower Egypt, hung from standards.[13]

John Garstang excavated at Nekhen in 1905–06. He initially hoped to excavate the town site, but encountered difficulties working there,[14] and soon turned his attention to the area he misidentified as a 'fort' instead. That site dates to the second dynasty King Khasekhemwy. Beneath that area, Garstang excavated a Predynastic cemetery consisting of 188 graves, which served the bulk of the city population during the late Predynastic and Early Dynastic periods, revealing the burial practices of the non-elite Egyptians living at Nekhen.[15]

In 1967, Walter Fairservis of Vassar College began more extensive archeological research in the city[16]. More recently, the concession was excavated further by a multinational team of archaeologists, Egyptologists, geologists, and members of other sciences, which was coordinated by Michael Hoffman until his death in 1990, then by Barbara Adams of University College London and Dr. Renée Friedman representing the University of California, Berkeley and the British Museum, until Barbara Adams's death in 2001,[17] and by Renée Friedman thereafter.

Finds and Artifacts

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Hierakonpolis Tomb 100, "The Painted Tomb"

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Tomb 100, discovered in Nekhen, is the oldest known tomb with a mural painted on its plaster walls. The sepulcher is thought to date to the Gerzeh culture (c. 3500–3200 BC). Tomb 100 is generally considered as part of a wider cultural step towards more elaborate and ornamented burial rituals in ancient Egypt[18].

It is presumed that the mural shows religious scenes and images. It includes figures featured in Egyptian culture for three thousand years—a funerary procession of barques, presumably a goddess standing between two upright lionesses, a wheel of various horned quadrupeds, several examples of a staff that became associated with the deity of the earliest cattle culture and one being held up by a heavy-breasted goddess. Animals depicted include onagers or zebras, ibexes, ostriches, lionesses, impalas, gazelles, and cattle.

An ancient Nekhen tomb painting in plaster with barques, staffs, goddesses, and animals - possibly the earliest example of an Egyptian tomb mural

Several interpretations of the themes and designs visible in the Nekhen fresco have been associated with a distinctly foreign artifact found in Egypt, the Gebel el-Arak Knife (c. 3500–3200 BCE), with a Mesopotamian scene described as the Master of animals, showing a presumed figure between two lions, presumed fighting scenes, or the boats.[19][20][21][22]

  • Nekhen Tomb 100 image: figure with lions
    Nekhen Tomb 100 image: figure with lions
  • Nekhen Tomb 100 image: presumed warriors
    Nekhen Tomb 100 image: presumed warriors
  • Nekhen Tomb 100 image: presumed hunting
    Nekhen Tomb 100 image: presumed hunting
  • Nekhen Tomb 100 image: a barque
    Nekhen Tomb 100 image: a barque

Oldest-known zoo

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The oldest known zoological collection was revealed during excavations at Nekhen in 2009 of a menagerie that dates to c. 3500 BC. The animals,[23][24] numbering in totality fourteen during May 2015, include a leopard, two crocodiles,[25] hippopotami, hartebeest,[23] two[25] elephants,[23] baboons, and African wildcats.[23] Animals discovered at the cemetery site were found to have had broken bones, which seem to indicate injuries from trying to escape their captivity or from violence at the hands of their owners.[25]

Cylinder seals

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Cylinder seals at Nekhen include some of the first known scenes of an ancient Egyptian king smiting captive enemies with a mace[26], a recurring motif in ancient Egyptian artwork. Cylinder seals are generally thought to have been derived from Mesopotamian examples, in an instance of Egypt-Mesopotamia relations.[27]

  • Ivory cylinder seals discovered in Nekhen
    Ivory cylinder seals discovered in Nekhen
  • Nekhen ivory cylinder with kneeling men, with impression (drawing)
    Nekhen ivory cylinder with kneeling men, with impression (drawing)
  • Nekhen ivory cylinder with animals, with impression (drawing)
    Nekhen ivory cylinder with animals, with impression (drawing)
  • Nekhen ivory cylinder seal with impression of king smiting a captive (drawing)[26]
    Nekhen ivory cylinder seal with impression of king smiting a captive (drawing)[26]

Cosmetic palettes

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Several of the most well-preserved pre-Dynastic decorated palettes have been discovered in Nekhen, including the famous Narmer Palette, which shows one of the earlier depictions of an Egyptian pharaoh. They display images of animals such as the mythical serpopards, and also incorporate some of the first discovered use of hieroglyphs.

Maceheads

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Several predynastic-era maceheads have been discovered in Nekhen, including the Narmer macehead and the Scorpion Macehead, which feature the kings Narmer and Scorpion respectively.

  • The Narmer macehead found in Nekhen
    The Narmer macehead found in Nekhen
  • Content of the Narmer macehead (drawing)
    Content of the Narmer macehead (drawing)
  • Remains of a carved serpentine mace-head found in Nekhen
    Remains of a carved serpentine mace-head found in Nekhen
  • Design on remains of the serpentine macehead (drawing)
    Design on remains of the serpentine macehead (drawing)
  • The Scorpion Macehead
    The Scorpion Macehead

References

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  1. ^ Strabo Geography, Book 17, Chapter 1, section 47
  2. ^ "about the site". www.hierakonpolis-online.org. The Friends of Nekhen, The Hierakonpolis Expedition, c/o Department of Antiquities Ashmolean Museum University of Oxford, Beaumont Street, Oxford, OX1 2PH UK: University of Oxford. Retrieved 6 June 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
  3. ^ Boissoneault, Lorraine (November 12, 2015). "UNCHARTED Leopards, Hippos, and Cats, Oh My! The World's First Zoo". daily.jstor.org (JSTOR). Retrieved 6 June 2021.
  4. ^ Richardson 2003, p. 429.
  5. ^ Thompson, Jason (2008). A History of Egypt: From Earliest Times to the Present. American University in Cairo Press. p. 18. ISBN 978-977-416-091-2.
  6. ^ Josephson, Jack. "Naqada IId, Birth of an Empire". Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt. 51: 166–167.
  7. ^ Sayce, Archibald Henry. The Religion of Ancient Egypt. United Kingdom, T. & T. Clark, 1913.
  8. ^ Hoffman, Michael Allen; Hamroush, Hany A.; Allen, Ralph O. (1 January 1986). "A Model of Urban Development for the Hierakonpolis Region from Predynastic through Old Kingdom Times". Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt. 23: 186. doi:10.2307/40001098. JSTOR 40001098.
  9. ^ Shaw 2000, p. 197.
  10. ^ a b Shaw 2003, p. 32.
  11. ^ Shaw 2003, p. 33.
  12. ^ Shaw 2000, p. 254.
  13. ^ a b Gardiner 1961, p. 403.
  14. ^ Adams, B. (1995). Ancient Nekhen: Garstang in the city of Hierakonpolis. Surrey [England]: SIA Publishers. ISBN 1872561039. OCLC 34165351.
  15. ^ Adams, B. (1987). The fort cemetery at Hierakonpolis: excavated by John Garstang. London: KPI. ISBN 0710302754. OCLC 18268735.
  16. ^ Bard, Kathryn A. (2014). An introduction to the archaeology of Ancient Egypt (Second edition ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-118-89611-2. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)
  17. ^ Smith, Harry (13 July 2002). "Barbara Adams" (obituary). The Guardian. Retrieved 11 October 2016.
  18. ^ Shaw, Ian, ed. (2003). The Oxford history of ancient Egypt (New ed ed.). Oxford New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280458-7. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)
  19. ^ Shaw, Ian (2019). Ancient Egyptian Warfare: Tactics, Weaponry and Ideology of the Pharaohs. Open Road Media. p. 22. ISBN 978-1-5040-6059-2.
  20. ^ Kemp, Barry J. (2007). Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilisation. Routledge. p. 94. ISBN 978-1-134-56389-0.
  21. ^ Bestock, Laurel (2017). Violence and Power in Ancient Egypt: Image and Ideology before the New Kingdom. Routledge. p. 94. ISBN 978-1-134-85626-8.
  22. ^ Hartwig, Melinda K. (2014). A Companion to Ancient Egyptian Art. John Wiley & Sons. p. 424. ISBN 978-1-118-32509-4.
  23. ^ a b c d Rose, Mark "World's First Zoo - Hierakonpolis, Egypt", Archaeology Magazine
  24. ^ "Learn More about Renee Friedman". www.hierakonpolis-online.org (Hierakonpolis Expedition). Retrieved 6 June 2021.
  25. ^ a b c Watson, Traci; Friedman, Renee (May 25, 2015). "In Ancient Egypt, Life Wasn't Easy for Elite Pets". National Geographic. 1145 17th St NW, Washington, DC 20036, United States: www.nationalgeographic.com. Archived from the original on July 20, 2021. Retrieved June 5, 2021 – via Microsoft Academic.{{cite magazine}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
  26. ^ a b Bommas, Martin (2011). Cultural Memory and Identity in Ancient Societies. A&C Black. p. 13. ISBN 9781441187475.
  27. ^ Wilkinson, Toby (2007). The Egyptian World. Routledge. p. 484. ISBN 9781136753763.
  28. ^ a b Whitney Davis, George C.; Pardee, Helen N. (1992). Masking the Blow: The Scene of Representation in Late Prehistoric Egyptian Art. University of California Press. p. 17. ISBN 9780520074880.
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