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Sainapati

Sainapati was a Sikh poet and writer who known for writing the Sri Gur Sobha. Born to a literate father, Sainapati also became a writer like his parent. He joined the service of Guru Gobind Singh at Anandpur, where he carried out translation work. He later wrote a poetic work covering the life of the tenth Sikh guru and the Khalsa.

Biography

His birth name was Chandra Sain. He was born into a Jat family of the Mann gotra (clan). His father's name was Bal Chand, who from from Lahore and a literate man. Chandra Sain's pen-names were Sainapati and Sain Kavi. At Anandpur, he joined the service of the kavi darbar (poet-court) of Guru Gobind Singh. Whilst in the service of the tenth guru, he carried out translation work, an example being where he translated an ancient Indian statecraft treatise, the Chanakya Niti. Between the end of the 18th century to the conflict at Anandpur in 1705 that caused the Sikhs to evacuate, Sainapati was in Wazirabad. While in Wazirabad, Sainapati's friend Vaid Jagat Rai convinced him to write a Braj translation of a dated medicinal treatise known as Ram Binod by Ram Chand. The translation work was carried-out and the work carried the title of Sri Sain Sukh.

Sainapati wrote Sri Gur Sobha, with the text itself claiming it was written on Bhadon sudi 15, 1758 Bk., corresponding to 6 September 1701 in the Gregorian calendar. However, since the work contains stories of Guru Gobind Singh's life from after 1701 and until his death in 1708, it is believed that 1701 is when the first draft of the Sri Gur Sobha was prepared by Sainapati, with the author working on it overtime until it was finished in 1711. The work consists of twenty chapters.

According to Sumer Singh, based on internal evidence present within the opening lines of Sri Gur Sobha, where the text states khalsa bach ("says the Khalsa") instead of the usual kaviovāch ("says the poet"), Sainapati likely was baptized into the Khalsa, which is why Sumer Singh refers to him as Saina Singh.

Bibliography

• Translation of the Chanakya Niti
• Sri Sain Sukh – Braj translation of the medical text Ram Binod by Ram Chand
• Sri Gur Sobha – poetic text covering the life of Guru Gobind Singh and the establishment of the Khalsa

Sikhism in Kenya

Sikhs arrived in Kenya during the colonial period. Sikhs in Kenya are also referred to as KalaSinghas.

History

General map of the Uganda Railway in British East Africa, ca.1910

The first period of Sikh migration to East Africa dates between the years 1895–1902, with many of these early arrivals finding work as labourers for the then under-construction Uganda Railway (popularly referred to as the "Lunatic Line"), whilst others found work in the nascent police forces. Many of the Sikhs who worked on the railway's construction were employed as foremen or managers. Sikhs were employed in the police forces, with Sikh soldiers from the Punjab being recruited into the force. In 1895, the first Sikh and non-British police inspector of Kenya, named Kapur Singh, was appointed. Sikh soldiers from the Punjab Rifles were appointed to protect the railway that was under construction.

Cutting near Voi Station, Kenya, ca.1890's

The first gurdwara of Nairobi was established in 1909 by Kishen Singh. Another gurdwara was established in Makindu in 1926.

Photograph of Sikh traders in Maasailand, Kenya, 1920

The word KalaSinghas is used in Kenya to refer to Sikhs. It is believed the term is derived from Kala Singh, a settler originally from Patiala who co-established a company by the name of Munshiram, Kala Singh and Company. Kala Singh managed to reach deep into the Maasai reserve, which led to his name being used by the locals to refer to turbaned Sikhs. An immigrant named Puran Singh, who arrived in 1916, had made civic contributions to Kenyan society at the time, which led to the naming of Kericho town-square after him, thus it is called Sant Puran Singh Square.

Prominent early Sikh politicians of Kenya include:

• Makahan Singh – trade unionist
• Nahar Singh Manga – lawyer and the first Asian to be appointed a Queen’s Council in East Asia
• Sir Mota Singh – council member, judge, and knight
• Alderman Mohan Singh – businessman who became the first non-British deputy mayor of Nairobi.

Harjinder Singh Kanwal is a local Sikh-Kenyan amateur historian, who has uncovered the history of his people in the country.

Thanesar State

MaplesyrupSushi/sandbox
Detail of the main, continuous tracts of territory of Thanesar State from a map created by the British East India Company, ca.1829–1835 (not including its exclaves viewable on the full-map)
Capital	Thanesar
Today part of	Haryana, India

Thanesar State was a Sikh state based out of Thanesar.

History

Detail of a painting of Lehna Singh, son of Mahtab Singh, Raja of Thanesar State, from the Tazkirat Al-Umara of James Skinner, ca.1836

Wildlife of Punjab, India

Agriculture in Punjab

The fauna of the area is rich, with 396 types of birds, 214 kinds of Lepidoptera, 55 varieties of fish, 20 types of reptiles, and 19 kinds of mammals. The state of Punjab has large wetland areas, bird sanctuaries that house numerous species of birds, and many zoological parks. Wetlands include the national wetland Hari-Ke-Pattan, the wetland of Kanjli, and the wetlands of Kapurthala Sutlej. Wildlife sanctuaries include the Harike in the district of Tarn Taran Sahib, the Zoological Park in Rupnagar, Chhatbir Bansar Garden in Sangrur, Aam Khas Bagh in Sirhind, Amritsar's famous Ram Bagh Palace, Shalimar Garden in Kapurthala, and the famous Baradari Garden in the city of Patiala.

Flora

Punjab used to have large forests and jungles, such as the Lakhi and Macchiwara jungles, that were used by Sikhs during historical periods of open-genocide and active-oppression against them, such as under the Mughals. However, much of its former forests were subsequently cut-down.

Punjab has the lowest forest cover as a percentage of land area of any Indian state, with 3.6% of its total area under forest cover as of 2017. During the Green Revolution, large tracts of jungles were cut-down in the state to make room for agriculture and forested areas were also cleared for road infrastructure and residential homes. Various NGOs are working towards afforestation and reforestation of the state by launching educational drives, planting saplings, working towards regulatory changes, and pressuring organisations to follow environmental laws. One NGO, EcoSikh, has planted over 100 forests, composed of native plant species, in the state using the Japanese Miyawaki methodology that are named 'Guru Nanak Sacred Forests'. Native plant species are facing the risk of extirpation from the state but planting mini-forests throughout the land can help prevent this from occurring. Prior to the Green Revolution, Butea monosperma (known as 'dhak' in Punjabi) trees were found in abundance in the state.

Fauna

Inlaid stone art (jaratkari) from the walls of the Golden Temple shrine in Amritsar depicting a predatory cat hunting a blackbuck antelope

A few of the rivers in Punjab have crocodiles, including reintroduced gharials in the Beas River after half a century of their extirpation from the state. Indus river dolphins can be found in the Harike Wetland. The extraction of silk from silkworms is another industry that flourishes in the state. Production of bee honey is done in some parts of Punjab. The southern plains are desert land; hence, camels can be seen. Buffaloes graze around the banks of rivers. The northeastern part is home to animals like horses. Wildlife sanctuaries have many more species of wild animals like the otter, wild boar, wildcat, fruit bat, hog deer, flying fox, squirrel, and mongoose. Naturally formed forests can be seen in the Shivalik ranges in the districts of Ropar, Gurdaspur and Hoshiarpur. Patiala is home to the Bir forest while the wetlands area in Punjab is home to the Mand forest. The local subspecies of blackbuck, A. c. rajputanae, is facing the risk of extirpation from the state.

Botanical gardens exist throughout Punjab. There is a zoological park and a tiger safari park, as well as three parks dedicated to deer.

The state bird is the northern goshawk (baz) (Accipiter gentilis), the state animal is the blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra), the state aquatic animal is Indus river dolphin (Platanista minor), and the state tree is the shisham (Dalbergia sissoo).

See also

• Department of Forest and Wildlife (Punjab)

Kartarpur Bir

The Kartarpur Bir, also known as the Kartarpur Pothi, is the earliest recension of the Adi Granth.

Pre-canonical Sikh texts

Pre-canonical Sikh texts are collections of Sikh scriptures preceding the compilation of the Adi Granth.

Background

Guru Nanak composed hymns, which were sung by his followers in rāga set to music. His successor, Guru Angad, opened centers and distributed these hymns. The community would sing the hymns and his agents collected donations. This tradition was continued by the third and fourth gurus as well. The fifth guru, Guru Arjan, discovered that Prithi Chand – his eldest brother and a competing claimant to the Sikh guruship – had a copy of an earlier pothi (palm-leaf manuscript) with hymns and was distributing hymns of the earlier gurus along with his own of hymns. Guru Arjan considered these as spurious and became concerned about establishing an authentic anthology of approved hymns.

Painting of Bhai Banno presenting his Khari Bir [volume of the Guru Granth Sahib with unauthenticated, superflous additional verses] to Guru Arjan

The oldest surviving manuscript version of the Adi Granth is the Guru Nanak Dev University Manuscript 1245, which has been dated to c. 1599. Other early editions of the Adi Granth with some variations include the Bahoval pothi (c. 1600), Vanjara pothi (c. 1601) and Bhai Rupa pothi (c. 1603). Many minor variations, and three significant Adi Granth recensions, are known; these provide insights into how the Sikh scripture was compiled, edited and revised over time. There is a fourth significant version called the Lahori bir, but it primarily differs in how the hymns are arranged and the final pages of the Adi Granth.

Compilation of a standard canon

In the 19th and 20th-century, several manuscript versions of the Adi Granth and the Guru Granth Sahib hymns were discovered. This triggered contesting theories about authenticity and how the canonical text of Sikhism evolved over time. There are five views:

• The first view held by scholars such as Balwant Singh Dhillon states that there was a consistent "mother tradition", where the hymns of Guru Nanak were carefully preserved as a single codex without any corruption or unauthorized changes, to which the later Gurus added additional hymns. The Sikh scripture developed in linear, pure form becoming first the Adi Granth and finally the closed version of the Guru Granth Sahib. According to this view, there was no pre-canonical diversity, the scripture developed in an organized and disciplined format, and it denies the existence of alternate hymns and texts that were cherished by Sikhs of an earlier era.
• The second view held by scholars such as Gurinder Singh Mann states that the scripture started from a single process, proceeded linearly, then diversified into separate textual traditions with some variations, over time. This school of scholars supports their theory by highlighting the similarities of the manuscripts and close match particularly between the three manuscripts called the Guru Har Sahai MS, the Govindval MS, and the Guru Nanak Dev University MS 1245. This theory is weakened by variations observed in 27 manuscript variants now dated between 1642 and 1692. The alternate formulation of this theory states that two branches developed over time, with the Peshawar pothi and Kartarpur pothi being the two branches.
• The third view held by scholars such as Piar Singh states that independent versions of the Sikh scripture developed in geographically distant regions of the Indian subcontinent. These versions developed because of the forgetfulness or creativity of the local Sikh leaders, errors made by scribes, attempts to adopt popular hymns of bhagats or adapt the hymns to local regional languages where Gurmukhi was not understood. It is these manuscripts that Guru Arjan collected and considered, then edited to produce an approved version of the Adi Granth. The Sikh scripture, according to this school, was thus a collaborative effort and there was no authentic version of the pre-canonical text in Sikhism.
• The fourth view builds upon this third view and is supported by scholars such as Jeevan Deol. According to this view, there were independent textual traditions in Sikhism before Guru Arjan decided to edit and redact them into the Adi Granth. These textual traditions developed in different parts of the Indian subcontinent, greatly influenced by the popularity of regional bhagats and their Bhakti movement ideas about nirguna and saguna forms of the divine, with Guru Arjan favoring the nirgun versions. The Adi Granth reflects the review, editing and compilation of complex and diverse textual traditions before him.
• The fifth view held by scholars such as Pashaura Singh develops and refines the fourth view. It states that the Sikh scripture emerged from a collaborative effort of Guru Arjan and his trusted associates, particularly Bhai Gurdas and Jagana Brahmin of Agra. His collaborators were his devout admirers, well versed in the Sikh thought, Sanskrit traditions and philosophical schools of Indian religions. The variant manuscripts support this theory, as does the handwriting analysis of the Kartarpur bir (manuscript) allegedly approved by Guru Arjan which shows at least four distinct scribal styles. The variations in the manuscripts also affirm that the Adi Granth did not develop in a linear way, i.e. it was not simply copied from a previous version.

Goindwal Pothis

There are two extant manuscripts of the Goindwal Pothis: the Ahiapur Vali Pothi and Pinjore Vali Pothi. The Ahiapur volume is kept at Jalandhar whilst the Pinjore volume is kept at Pinjore.

Guru Harsahai Pothi

Another early variant manuscript is called the Guru Harsahai pothi, preserved by Sodhis and is believed to be the one that existed before Guru Arjan's compilation and one he gave to his eldest brother Prithi Chand. It was initially installed in Amritsar, then was moved in the 18th-century and preserved in Guru Harsahai (35 kilometers west of Faridkot, Punjab) till 1969, when the state government requested it be displayed for the 500 years celebrations. It was moved for the first time in over 200 years and briefly displayed in Patiala for the event. Thereafter, the Sodhis consented to transfers. In 1970, however, during another such transfer, this early version of the Adi Granth manuscript was stolen. However, photos of some pages have survived.

This manuscript is claimed by the Sodhis to be the oldest and one written in part by Guru Nanak. However, this claim is first observed only much later, in texts attributed to the 17th-century Hariji, the grandson of Prithi Chand. Based on the evidence in the surviving photos, it is unlikely that Guru Nanak wrote or maintained a pothi. The features in its Gurmukhi script and the language suggest that the hymns are significantly older, and that the pre-canonical hymns were being written down in early Sikhism and preserved by the Sikh Gurus prior to the editing by Guru Arjan. The existence of Guru Harsahai manuscript attests to the early tradition of Sikh scripture, its existence in variant forms and a competition of ideas on its contents including the Mul Mantar.

There exists a belief that Lakhmi Chand may have been the scribe of the Guru Harsahai Pothi. Balwant Singh Dhillon finds the connection unlikely.

Sikhism and science

The relationship between Sikhism and science.

Bhai Rupa Chand

Bhai Rupa Chand, alternatively spelt as Bhai Roopa or Bhai Rup, was an associate of the Sikh gurus.

Kutwalee

The Kutwalee was a palace of the Sikh Empire that was once located on the banks of the Golden Temple's sarovar.

Bunga (building)

Bungas are traditional Sikh structures.

Sikhism and the Internet

Sikhs and the Internet have a diverse relationship. Many Sikh youth use the Internet as a resource to learn about their religion.

History

First websites

Some early Sikh websites include:

• Sikhs.org – established in December 1994 by Sandeep Singh Brar, claiming itself to be the first website dedicated to Sikhism. This website claims to be the first one to make the Guru Granth Sahib available on the Internet.
• SikhSpirit.com – established in October 1995. Began as the Central Gurdwara Resource Centre Newsletter in 1995 and based at the Central Gurdwara (Khalsa Jatha) London.
• SikhNet – established in April 1996 by Gurumustuk Singh Khalsa of 3HO.

Guru Granth Sahib

A digital version of the Guru Granth Sahib, accompanied with translations, is available on the Internet.

External links

• Sikhs.org
• SikhSpirit.com
• SikhNet.com
• Sikh website list by SikhiWiki
• Sikh website list by DiscoverSikhism.com
• Sikh website list by Feedspot

Sikhism and the environment

This article relates to the relationship between Sikhs and the environment.

History

Origins

Antecedents of Sikh forays into environmentalism can be found within the Guru Granth Sahib itself. The second shloka of the Japji Sahib of Guru Nanak stresses on the importance of living in-harmony with nature. Furthermore, Guru Har Rai taught that the environment should be cared for by Sikhs. The sarbat da bhala philosophy of Sikhs calls upon them to promote the well-being of all.

Environmental causes

Some earlier Sikh organizations that delved into environmental efforts include Pingalwara, established by Bhagat Puran Singh, whom had pro-environmental inclinations. Balbir Singh Seechewal of the Nirmala sect, spearheaded the movement to clean-up the Kali Bein rivulet in the year 2000. The Kali Bein, which has a high-degree of importance in the Sikh religion as the location where Guru Nanak became religiously transformed in God's court, had been degraded due to agricultural run-off, untreated sewage, and an overgrowth of water hyacinth that was clogging-up the rivulet. Seechewal also had raised awareness on the Buddha Nullah issue.

Sewa Singh, director of the Nishan-e-Sikhi Charitable Trust based in Khadur Sahib, supervised the distribution and planting of hundreds of thousands of tree saplings. The roadways of Khadur Sahib being lined with these planted trees, though not all of them are indigenous species. Furthermore, gardens were planted that contain a larger variety of tree species.

The Machhiwara jungle that existed during Guru Gobind Singh's time, which was cut-down in the subsequent centuries, is planned to be revived by the SGPC through the planting of samplings on gurdwara land the organization owns within the locality to revive the lost forest.

Activism from mainly Sikh groups were instrumental in saving the Mattewara forest area from being cut-down.

Theological perspectives

Sikhs believe that the environment and the various forces of nature are sentient, forming part of the divine consciousness of existence. In the Guru Granth Sahib on page 6, the wind, water, fire, planets, galaxies, and solar systems are described as being part of the divine oneness that interlinks all. Sikhs believe animals are sentient beings who worship the divine. Due to the Sikh respect for animals, many Sikhs follow a vegetarian diet, however a vegetarian diet is not mandated in Sikhism. The only restrictions relating to meat are related to Sikhs being barred from consuming meat sourced from an animal that was slaughtered through a religiously sacrificial manner, such as halal. Furthermore, Sikhs are expected to refrain from eating meat if it is injurious to their health. Another reason why meat-consumption is not officially banned in Sikhism is due to how the Guru Granth Sahib on page 1189 describes how vegetables are also living creatures, so it would be discriminatory to ban eating meat but not ban eating plants.

External links

• Alliance of Religions and Conservation (ARC) webpage on Sikhism
• Hacienda de Guru Ram Das
• EcoSikh
• Sikh Green Team

Dakhni Sikhs

Dakhni Sikhs, including Akali Hazura Singh, posing with two British officials at Takht Hazur Sahib, Nanded, 1903

Dakhni Sikhs are a group of Sikhs from Southern India. Maharaja Ranjit Singh who was good friends with the 2nd Nizam of Hyderabad (Nizam Ali Khan) had sent 1200 Sikh soldiers who became a part of the Nizams army.

Relics of the Sikh guru

Many relics are associated with the Sikh gurus, who established Sikhism over a 239 year period. Some relics associated with the Sikh gurus have been preserved in private collections.

Guru Nanak

The Sodhi descendants of Guru Ram Das in Guru Harsahai claim to possess many relics of the founder of Sikhism, Guru Nanak, such as his writings and personal belongings.

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Guru Gobind Singh

The former state of Nabha held many relics of the tenth guru, including his Kesh, Kangha, and Dastar.

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