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An anti-teenage pregnancy poster.

Teenage Pregnancy Stigma

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Teenage pregnancy stigma refers to the negative attitudes, judgments, and discrimination directed at adolescents who become pregnant or are parenting below the age of 20 years old.

Adolescence is classified by the World Health Organisation as being between 10 to 19 years old, thus teenage pregnancy is to become pregnant between these ages. [1] Research has consistently found evidence of negative labelling on teenage mothers across varying cultures. [2][3][4] The reasons as to why there are negative attitudes towards teenage pregnancy, however, are vast, complex, and vary between cultures. [5] Research shows how many people view teenage pregnancy as a failure of responsibility and poor self-control. This judgment is often linked to teenage mothers, whilst poor morals and criminality are stereotypes linked to teenage fathers. [6]

Stigma is defined by Erving Goffman as "an attribute that is deeply discrediting" of the individual who attains it. [7] Such an attribute is often one that deviates from the social norm. For teenage mothers, the attribute that often discredits them is the early sexual activity, for which the main physical symbol of is the growing abdomen. [8] For teenage fathers, the attribute which discredits them as an individual part of society is a 'character' stigma for which there is no bodily indicator of. [6]

The history of teenage pregnancy stigma is complex, and vacillates through the years as being caused by the health-related issues with early-age pregnancy, or being stigmatised due to it often deviating from Christian and Islamic religious scripture of intercourse outside of marriage; teenage pregnancies most often are outside of wedlock. [9][10] However, in the U.S, increased religiosity was significantly associated with a higher teen birth rate. [11] Societal implications of teenage pregnancy are often at least partially the cause of the stigma, such as earlier education drop-out rates amongst teenage parents, and higher criminality rates of children of teenage parents [12][13]. The impact of stigmatisation on teenage parents can have social and psychological consequences, which include but are not limited to: low self-esteem, declining mental health, and social isolation [4][14] In-depth research into adolescent parents and the stigmatisation they experience helps create interventions and policies to ensure that they have help in overcoming the obstacles stigmatisation creates.

Historical Context

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Early Modern to 19th Century

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In early modern Europe and colonial America, sexual behaviour outside marriage was heavily stigmatised, driven by Christian doctrines emphasising chastity, self-control, and moral discipline. [15] Pregnant teenagers were often socially excluded and forced to live on the outskirts of society, being labelled as "fallen women" after the story of Adam and Eve from The Bible. [16] Unfortunately, documentation of premarital teenage pregnancies pre-19th century is sparse likely due to the stigma, and most data that exists is of White lower-class women. [17]

The 20th Century

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The early 1900's saw the rise of eugenics theories, which stigmatised groups perceived as "unfit" to parent, including young, poor, or unmarried women. [18] Teenage mothers were often pressured into giving their children up for adoption, a traumatic issue that has only been investigated recently. [19] As education and formal employment became more critical for economic success - compared to the agrarian society of the past - teenage motherhood was increasingly viewed as a disruption to the growing working lifestyle in capitalist countries. [20]

Post-WWII, the 1940's and 1950's, marriage and family life was heavily idealised, but teenage pregnancies were declining overall. [21][22] During this time, the stigma also disproportionately affected ethnic minority groups. For example, Black young mothers were often portrayed in media as symbols of societal dysfunction and immorality compared to White teenage mothers [23] However, recent research indicates that White teenage mothers report higher felt stigmatisation levels than ethnic minority teenage mothers. [24]

In the 1980s and 1990s, teenage pregnancy became a focal point of political discourse, often framed as a cause of poverty and social decline. [25] Welfare reforms, such as the Sure Start Program in the UK, were often pushing forth the agenda of reducing teenage pregnancy rates, thus further stigmatising it rather than providing educational and healthcare support for teenage parents. [26]

Pregnant crucified teenager at the World Social Forum in Nairobi, displayed as a religious martyr (see more on In the name of God).

The 21st Century

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Teenage pregnancy stigma still continues to relay harmful stereotypes onto young mothers and their children to this day. Some teenage pregnancy prevention campaigns (such as the Teenage Pregnancy Prevention Framework in the UK) have been pinpointed for the further stigma they bring upon young mothers by portraying teenage pregnancy as unsafe. [26] Teenage mothers that were interviewed about teenage pregnancy prevention campaign posters in New York, stated that the use of the slogan "Think being a teen parent won't cost you?" is redundant and belittling, and argue that educating adolescents about their options if they do become a young parent will be more viable in aiding young mothers. [27]

Despite the pervasiveness of the negative stigma, it is "rarely described as a contributing factor to teen mothers' difficulties and their health and social disparities", with an exception towards lowered self-esteem and presentation of the self. [28][8]

Causes of the Stigma

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Cultural Norms and Religious Influence

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Adolescent pregnancy deviates from Western norms, where the average age of first-time motherhood in the UK is 30.9 years. [29] Consequently, teenage pregnancies are statistically abnormal and are often judged for not aligning with traditional norms. [28] In the U.S., higher religiosity correlates with less tolerance of teenage pregnancies outside marriage, although this contrasts with higher teen birth rates in strongly religious areas, which can be due to the abstinence-only education on sex in these areas. [30][11]

In contrast, some sub-Saharan African cultures view early pregnancy as a blessing, symbolising youth and fertility. [31] These perceptions contribute to an adolescent birth rate over 100 per 1,000 young women in sub-Saharan Africa - double the global average. [32] However, higher levels of poverty in these regions can lead to more transactional sexual relationships between young girls and older men, highlighting the potential issues of a weaker stigma compared to regions where teenage pregnancy is taboo. [33]

Economic and Educational Factors

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Teenage mothers are often associated with welfare dependency, despite evidence showing they may earn more on average, marry higher-earning spouses, and require less welfare support in their mid-20s to 30s compared to peers who delay childbirth. [13] Nonetheless, societal narratives focus on those needing financial aid, branding them as an "underclass" below the working-class. [8]

Teenage parents are more likely to drop out of school, with only 50% of U.S. teenage mothers graduating high school in 2016. [34] This fuels assumptions of limited career prospects, though research suggests the opposite in some cases. [13] Ironically, teenage mothers who stay in school report more stigma than those who drop out, as peers view them as perhaps planning pregnancies versus being accidental, intensifying judgment. [35][36] However, many young mothers use this stigma to motivate academic and career ambitions in order to 'prove the masses' wrong. [36]

Stigma presents a "double-edged sword": teenage mothers in school may be seen as neglectful of maternal duties, while dropouts face accusations of perpetuating societal "underclass" stereotypes. [8][36]

Media Representations

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Jamie Lynn Spears and her daughter on Double Dare competition in 2019.

Media often amplifies the stigma around teenage pregnancy, portraying young parents as immature or deviant, ignoring their successes. [37][6] A famous example of a teenage parent being vilified on social media and news platforms is Jamie Lynn Spears, who became pregnant at 15, where dehumanising comments were made about her sexual activity with the 2008 Peta president Ingrid Newkirk stating in a lecture on moral relativism: "Just as [Jamie] Lynne Spears is under scrutiny because of her underage daughter's pregnancy, people who fail to spay and neuter their animals should also be feeling the heat". This mirrors the eugenics theories which supported forceful control of who is able to reproduce in the past. [18][38]

Social media intensifies such narratives, with platforms like Facebook, fostering echo chambers of judgment and reinforcing traditional gender norms. [39]

Prematurity and low birth weight by country (per 100,000 inhabitants) in 2004. As shown, the highest amount of these cases are in sub-Saharan Africa, where teenage pregnancies are highest.

Physical Health Factors

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Teenage pregnancies pose higher risks of eclampsia, anemia, hemorrhage, and systemic infections, compared to pregnancies in women aged 20-24 years old. [1] Babies also face risks of low birth weight, preterm birth, and severe neonatal issues. [40] These health concerns may contribute to stigma, though more research is needed to confirm their influence.

Bias among healthcare providers can further exacerbate the stigma. Reports of medical professionals withholding pain relief to deter future pregnancies reveal ethical violations and discriminatory attitudes toward adolescent mothers. [41][8] These practices highlight the need for better healthcare ethics and informed consent for young parents.

Impacts of the Stigma

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Self-esteem

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Lower self-esteem in teenage mothers is a common finding, especially when compared to the self-esteem levels of older mothers. [42] This is frequently shown to coincide with the levels of social ostracism teenage parents face by peers and institutions, such as the education system. [4] Lowered self-esteem can also become a bidirectional factor for pregnant teenagers, in which the 'prophecy' of failure placed upon them can lead to them to self-isolate due to public embarrassment. [14]

Depression, post-traumatic stress, and suicide

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Some studies showcase how adolescent mothers report significantly higher rates of depression, both prenatally and postpartum, compared to adult mothers and their non-pregnant peers. [43] Additionally, suicide rates in pregnant and parenting adolescents is seven times higher than non-parenting teenagers. [43] Post-traumatic stress amongst teenage parents is reported to be much higher (significantly in urban environments), likely due to the higher exposure rates to interpersonal violence across their lifetime. [44] Whilst links can be made with experienced stigma and mental health problems such as these, further research needs to investigate whether stigmatisation has a direct key influence.

A U.S. government poster on teenage pregnancy, trying to prevent further adolescents from becoming pregnant. It states that teenage pregnancy cost American tax-payers $9 billion dollars in 2011.

Social isolation

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The social exclusion faced by young mothers in particular can harm both their mental and physical health, again exemplifying the reciprocality of such influences on a teenage parent. Experiencing stigma from professionals and support services undermines their trust, making them more likely to avoid seeking help, miss important medical appointments, decline in mental stability, or drop out of school. [28] Research illustrates how, to avoid social isolation, young mothers learn from the stigmatisation they have experienced, and monitor the presentation of themselves to ensure no further blame comes their way, and also try to make the hardships they experience publicly aware in hopes of raising empathy. [8][4]

Education

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The stigma can demotivate young parents from pursuing education or career goals, believing they are incapable or undeserving as teachers and peers create an unsupportive environment at schools. [36] The perceived stigma correlated with higher dropout rates in teenage mothers, perhaps due to a lack of crucial help or empathy towards these teenagers in educational environments. [45]

Efforts Made to Combat The Stigma

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Public awareness campaigns

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Oral birth control pills opened from a blister pack, a popular form of contraception.

The NoTeenShame movement in the U.S. was started by young mothers to highlight the negative impacts of the stigma, and thus advocate for more compassion towards teenage parents via protests for their reproductive rights, more resources and reducing sexist ingrained views. [46] This campaign was unique in the way that it did not solely focus on prevention of teenage pregnancy, but focusing on the societal issue of negatively stereotyping mothers who may be in need of extra support. Programs like MTV's '16 and Pregnant' aimed to also raise awareness of the challenges teenage mothers face. The show was found to reduce teenage pregnancies in the U.S by 4.3% in the 18 months after it was first aired, and also led to teenagers showing an increased interest on social media in using contraception. [47]

Role of education in reducing stigma

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Educating everyone about how stigmatised teenage parents are and the consequences this brings upon them is vital in increasing the publics empathy. [8][28] Educational and peer support programs hope to reduce the harassment and cruelty teenage mothers face in society. For example, nonprofit organisation Young Woman United in New Mexico collaborate with schools and healthcare providers to create inclusive spaces for teenage mothers - who have previously lacked a safe space to speak with other mothers. [48]

See Also

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References

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  1. ^ a b World Health Organization. (2024, April 10). Adolescent Pregnancy. WHO; World Health Organization: WHO. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/adolescent-pregnancy
  2. ^ Shonisane Emily Moganedi, & Tshimangadzo Selina Mudau. (2023). Stigma and Mental Well-Being among Teenage Mothers in the Rural Areas of Makhado, Limpopo Province. Social Sciences, 13(1), 18–18. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci13010018
  3. ^ Mizero, D., Marie Immaculee Dusingize, Axel Shimwa, Alima Uwimana, Tsion Yohannes Waka, & Wong, R. (2024). Assessing the experiences of teenage mothers in accessing healthcare in Rwanda. BMC Public Health, 24(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-19769-z
  4. ^ a b c d Whitehead, E. (2001). Teenage pregnancy: on the road to social death. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 38(4), 437–446. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0020-7489(00)00086-9
  5. ^ Horn, B. (1983). Cultural beliefs and teenage pregnancy. The Nurse Practitioner, 8(8), 35, 39, 74. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6633983/
  6. ^ a b c Sheeran, N., Jones, L., Bernardin, S., Wood, M., & Doherty, L. (2020). Immoral, Incompetent, and Lacking Warmth: How Stereotypes of Teenage Fathers Compare to Those of Other Parents. Sex Roles, 84(5-6), 360–375. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-020-01172-8
  7. ^ Erving Goffman. (1963). Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity. Touchstone.
  8. ^ a b c d e f g Ellis-Sloan, K. (2014). Teenage Mothers, Stigma and Their “Presentations of Self.” Sociological Research Online, 19(1). https://doi.org/10.5153/sro.3269
  9. ^ Mukhopadhyay, P., Chaudhuri, R., & Paul, B. (2010). Hospital-based Perinatal Outcomes and Complications in Teenage Pregnancy in India. Journal of Health, Population and Nutrition, 28(5). https://doi.org/10.3329/jhpn.v28i5.6158
  10. ^ Martin, J. A., Hamilton, B. E., Ventura, S. J., Osterman, M. J. K., & Mathews, T. J. (2013). Births: Final data for 2011 (Vol. 62). National Vital Statistics Reports. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics.
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  12. ^ Sobngwi-Tambekou, J. L., Tsague-Agnoux, M., Fezeu, L. K., & Ndonko, F. (2022). Teenage childbearing and school dropout in a sample of 18,791 single mothers in Cameroon. Reproductive Health, 19(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12978-021-01323-4
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  15. ^ van der Heijden, M., Schmidt, A., & Vermeesch, G. (2020). Illegitimate parenthood in early modern Europe. The History of the Family, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1080/1081602x.2020.1853586
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  18. ^ a b Solinger, R. (2016). Wake up Little Susie : single pregnancy and race before Roe v. Wade. Routledge.
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  27. ^ Martin, R. (2013). New York Ads Resurrect Stereotypes For Former Teen Mom. NPR.org. https://www.npr.org/2013/03/24/175173115/new-york-ads-resurrect-stereotypes-for-former-teen-mom
  28. ^ a b c d Smithbattle , I. L. (2013, July 1). Reducing the stigmatization of teen mothers. MCN. The American Journal of Maternal Child Nursing. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23571424/
  29. ^ Office for National Statistics. (2023, January 19). Birth characteristics in England and Wales - Office for National Statistics. Www.ons.gov.uk. https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/birthsdeathsandmarriages/livebirths/bulletins/birthcharacteristicsinenglandandwales/2021
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  35. ^ Wiemann, C. M., Rickert, V. I., Berenson, A. B., & Volk, R. J. (2005). Are pregnant adolescents stigmatized by pregnancy? Journal of Adolescent Health, 36(4), 352.e1–352.e7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2004.06.006
  36. ^ a b c d Bermea, A. M., Toews, M. L., & Wood, L. G. (2016). “Students Getting Pregnant Are Not Gonna Go Nowhere”: Manifestations of Stigma in Adolescent Mothers’ Educational Environment. Youth & Society, 50(3), 423–436. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118x16661734
  37. ^ Vinson, J. (2012). Covering National Concerns about Teenage Pregnancy: A Visual Rhetorical Analysis of Images of Pregnant and Mothering Women. Feminist Formations, 24(2), 140–162. https://doi.org/10.1353/ff.2012.0017
  38. ^ Hyde, M. (2008, January 17). PETA: Jamie Lynn Spears was just another bitch on heat. The Guardian; The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/lostinshowbiz/2008/jan/17/petajamielynnspearswasjus
  39. ^ Naicker, P., & Singh, S. (2021). Teenage Girls’ Experiences of Slut-Shaming Through the Social Network Site, Facebook. Gender, Sexuality and Violence in South African Educational Spaces, 181–201. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-69988-8_8
  40. ^ Ursache, A., Lozneanu, L., Bujor, I., Cristofor, A., Popescu, I., Gireada, R., Mandici, C. E., Găină, M. A., Grigore, M., & Matasariu, D. R. (2023). Epidemiology of Adverse Outcomes in Teenage Pregnancy—A Northeastern Romanian Tertiary Referral Center. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(2), 1226. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20021226
  41. ^ Quosdorf, A., Peterson, W. E., Rashotte, J., & Davies, B. (2020). Connecting With Adolescent Mothers: Perspectives of Hospital-Based Perinatal Nurses. Global Qualitative Nursing Research, 7, 233339361990089. https://doi.org/10.1177/2333393619900891
  42. ^ Kim, L. M., & Manion, A. B. (2019). Improving Self-Esteem and Building Self-Confidence in Adolescent Mothers: Implementation of Self-Efficacy–Focused Activity Sessions. Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services, 57(8). https://doi.org/10.3928/02793695-20190528-04
  43. ^ a b Hodgkinson, S. C., Colantuoni, E., Roberts, D., Berg-Cross, L., & Belcher, H. M. E. (2010). Depressive Symptoms and Birth Outcomes among Pregnant Teenagers. Journal of Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology, 23(1), 16–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpag.2009.04.006
  44. ^ Kennedy, A. C., & Bennett, L. (2006). Urban Adolescent Mothers Exposed to Community, Family, and Partner Violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21(6), 750–773. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260506287314
  45. ^ SmithBattle, L. (2020). Walking on Eggshells. MCN: The American Journal of Maternal/Child Nursing, Publish Ahead of Print(6). https://doi.org/10.1097/nmc.0000000000000655
  46. ^ noteenshame, A. (2014). noteenshame. Noteenshame. https://www.noteenshame.com/about
  47. ^ Kearney, M. S., & Levine, P. B. (2015). Media Influences on Social Outcomes: The Impact of MTV’s16 and Pregnanton Teen Childbearing. American Economic Review, 105(12), 3597–3632. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20140012
  48. ^ Grassroots Global Justice Alliance. (2019, November 24). Young Women United - Grassroots Global Justice Alliance. Grassroots Global Justice Alliance. https://ggjalliance.org/members/young-women-united/
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