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Educational developments in Germany

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History

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Prussian

[edit | edit source] Main article: Prussian education system

Historically, Lutheranism had a strong influence on German culture, including its education. Martin Luther advocated compulsory schooling so that all people would independently be able to read and interpret the Bible. This concept became a model for schools throughout Germany. German public schools generally have religious education provided by the churches in cooperation with the state ever since.

During the 18th century, the Kingdom of Prussia was among the first countries in the world to introduce free and generally compulsory primary education, consisting of an eight-year course of basic education,Volksschule. It provided not only the skills needed in an early industrialized world (reading, writing, and arithmetic) but also a strict education in ethics, duty, discipline and obedience. Children of affluent parents often went on to attend preparatory private schools for an additional four years, but the general population had virtually no access to secondary education and universities.

In 1810, during the Napoleonic Wars, Prussia introduced state certification requirements for teachers, which significantly raised the standard of teaching. The final examination, Abitur, was introduced in 1788, implemented in all Prussian secondary schools by 1812 and extended to all of Germany in 1871. The state also established teacher training colleges for prospective teachers in the common or elementary grades.

German Empire

[edit | edit source] When the German Empire was formed in 1871, the school system became more centralized. In 1872, Prussia recognized the first separate secondary schools for females. As learned professions demanded well-educated young people, more secondary schools were established, and the state claimed the sole right to set standards and to supervise the newly established schools.

Four different types of secondary schools developed:

• A nine-year classical Gymnasium (including study of Latin and Classical Greek or Hebrew, plus one modern language);
• A nine-year Realgymnasium (focusing on Latin, modern languages, science and mathematics);
• A nine-year Oberrealschule (focusing on modern languages, science and mathematics).
• A six-year Realschule (without university entrance qualification, but with the option of becoming a trainee in one of the modern industrial, office or technical jobs); and

By the turn of the 20th century, the four types of schools had achieved equal rank and privilege, although they did not have equal prestige.

Weimar Republic

[edit | edit source] After 1919, the Weimar Republic established a free, universal four-year elementary school (Grundschule). Most pupils continued at these schools for another four-year course. Those who were able to pay a small fee went on to a Mittelschule that provided a more challenging curriculum for an additional one or two years. Upon passing a rigorous entrance exam after year four, pupils could also enter one of the four types of secondary school.

Nazi Germany

[edit | edit source] See also: Nazi university

During the Nazi era (1933–1945), though the curriculum was reshaped to teach the beliefs of the regime, the basic structure of the education system remained unchanged.

East Germany

[edit | edit source] Main article: Education in East Germany

This section needs expansion with: Information on denazification policies for parity with subsequent FRG subsection. You can help by adding to it. (June 2023)

The German Democratic Republic (East Germany) started its own standardized education system in the 1960s. The East German equivalent of both primary and secondary schools was the Polytechnic Secondary School (Polytechnische Oberschule), which all students attended for 10 years, from the ages of 6 to 16. At the end of the 10th year, an exit examination was set. Depending upon the results, a pupil could choose to come out of education or undertake an apprenticeship for an additional two years, followed by an Abitur. Those who performed very well and displayed loyalty to the ruling party could change to the Erweiterte Oberschule (extended high school), where they could take their Abitur examinations after 12 school years. Although this system was abolished in the early 1990s after reunification, it continues to influence school life in the eastern German states.^{[citation needed]}

West Germany

[edit | edit source] After World War II, the Allied powers (Soviet Union, France, United Kingdom, and the U.S.) ensured that Nazi ideology was eliminated from the curriculum. They installed educational systems in their respective occupation zones that reflected their own ideas. When West Germany gained partial independence in 1949, its new constitution (Grundgesetz) granted educational autonomy to the state (Länder) governments. This led to widely varying school systems, often making it difficult for children to continue schooling whilst moving between states.

Multi-state agreements ensure that basic requirements are universally met by all state school systems. Thus, all children are required to attend one type of school (five or six days a week) from the age of 6 to the age of 16. A pupil may change schools in the case of exceptionally good (or exceptionally poor) ability. Graduation certificates from one state are recognized by all the other states. Qualified teachers are able to apply for posts in any of the states.

Federal Republic of Germany

[edit | edit source] Since the 1990s, a few changes have been taking place in many schools:

• Introduction of bilingual education in some subjects
• Experimentation with different styles of teaching
• Equipping all schools with computers and Internet access
• Creation of local school philosophy and teaching goals (Schulprogramm), to be evaluated regularly
• Reduction of Gymnasium school years (Abitur after grade 12) and introduction of afternoon periods as in many other western countries (turned down in 2019)

In 2000 after much public debate about Germany's perceived low international ranking in Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), there has been a trend towards a less ideological discussion on how to develop schools. These are some of the new trends:

• Establishing federal standards on quality of teaching
• More practical orientation in teacher training
• Transfer of some responsibility from the Ministry of Education to local school

Further outcomes:

• Bilingual education now requires mandatory English lessons in Grundschule
• The educational act (Bildungspakt) in 2019 is designed to increase the use of the internet and computers in schools.

Overview

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In Germany, education is the responsibility of the states (Länder) and part of their constitutional sovereignty (Kulturhoheit der Länder). Teachers are employed by the Ministry of Education for the state and usually have a job for life after a certain period (verbeamtet) (which, however, is not comparable in timeframe nor competitiveness to the typical tenure track, e.g. at universities in the US). This practice depends on the state and is currently changing. A parents' council is elected to voice the parents' views to the school's administration. Each class elects one or two Klassensprecher (class presidents; if two are elected usually one is male and the other female), who meet several times a year as the Schülerrat (students' council).

A team of school presidents is also elected by the pupils each year, whose main purpose is organizing school parties, sports tournaments and the like for their fellow students. The local town is responsible for the school building and employs the janitorial and secretarial staff. For an average school of 600 – 800 students, there may be two janitors and one secretary. School administration is the responsibility of the teachers, who receive a reduction in their teaching hours if they participate.

Church and state are separated in Germany. Compulsory school prayers and compulsory attendance at religious services at state schools are against the constitution. (It is expected, though, to stand politely for the school prayer even if one does not pray along.)

Literacy

[edit | edit source] Over 99% of Germans aged 15 and above are estimated to be able to read and write.

Preschool

[edit | edit source] German preschool is known as a Kindergarten (plural Kindergärten) or Kita, short for Kindertagesstätte (meaning "children's daycare center"). Children between the ages of 2 and 6 attend Kindergärten, which are not part of the school system. They are often run by city or town administrations, churches, or registered societies, many of which follow a certain educational approach as represented, e.g., by Montessori or Reggio Emilia or Berliner Bildungsprogramm. Forest kindergartens are well established. Attending a Kindergarten is neither mandatory nor free of charge, but can be partly or wholly funded, depending on the local authority and the income of the parents. All caretakers in Kita or Kindergarten must have a three-year qualified education, or be under special supervision during training.

Kindergärten can be open from 7 a.m. to 5 p.m. or longer and may also house a Kinderkrippe, meaning crèche, for children between the ages of eight weeks and three years, and possibly an afternoon Hort (often associated with a primary school) for school-age children aged 6 to 10 who spend the time after their lessons there. Alongside nurseries, there are day-care nurses (called Tagesmutter, plural Tagesmütter—the formal, gender-neutral form is Tagespflegeperson(en)) working independently from any pre-school institution in individual homes and looking after only three to five children typically up to three years of age. These nurses are supported and supervised by local authorities.

The term Vorschule, meaning 'pre-school', is used both for educational efforts in Kindergärten and for a mandatory class that is usually connected to a primary school. Both systems are handled differently in each German state. The Schulkindergarten is a type of Vorschule.

During the German Empire, children were able to pass directly into secondary education after attending a privately run, fee-based Vorschule which then was another sort of primary school. The Weimar Constitution banned these, feeling them to be an unjustified privilege, and the Basic Law still contains the constitutional rule (Art. 7 Sect. VI) that: Pre-schools shall remain abolished.

Homeschooling

[edit | edit source] Main article: Homeschooling international status and statistics § Germany

Homeschooling is – between Schulpflicht (compulsory schooling) beginning with elementary school to 18 years – illegal in Germany. The illegality has to do with the prioritization of children's rights over the rights of parents: children have the right to the company of other children and adults who are not their parents. For similar reasons, parents cannot opt their children out of sexual education classes because the state considers a child's right to information to be more important than a parent's desire to withhold it.

Primary education

[edit | edit source] Parents looking for a suitable school for their child have a wide choice of elementary schools:

• State school. State schools do not charge tuition fees. The majority of pupils attend state schools in their neighbourhood. Schools in affluent areas tend to be better than those in deprived areas. Once children reach school age, many middle-class and working-class families move away from deprived areas.^{[citation needed]}
• or, alternatively
  • Waldorf school (2,006 schools in 2007) (covers grades from 1–13)
  • Montessori method school (272)
  • Freie Alternativschule (free alternative school) (85)
  • Protestant (63) or Catholic (114) parochial schools

The entry year can vary between 5 and 7, while stepping back or skipping a grade is also possible.

Secondary education

[edit | edit source] See also: Education in Berlin and Education in Hamburg

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After children complete their primary education (at 10 years of age/grade 4, 12 year of age in Berlin and Brandenburg), there are four options for secondary schooling:

1. Gymnasium (Germany) until grade 12 or 13 (with Abitur as exit exam, qualifying for university).
2. Realschule until grade 10 or 11 (with Mittlere Reife (or Realschulabschluss) as exit exam); students can then attend Berufsfachschule (full-time vocational schools) or Fachoberschule for 2-3 years, which combines vocational school and an apprenticeship. In some regions there is Regionalschule, which is a combination of Realschule and Hauptschule. Pupils study for either 9 years, to obtain a qualification similar to the Hauptschulabschluss, or 10 years, to get the Mittlere Reife.
3. Hauptschule until grade 9, with an exam called the Hauptschulabschluss, to conclude. Afterwards, students can attend vocational schools.
4. Gesamtschule, which is a combination of the above, for 5-8 years, with a different qualification for different durations: 5 years for the Hauptschulabschluss; if a student opts for the longer 8 year program, they can take the gymnasium abitur exam, qualifying for university.

After passing through any of the above schools, pupils can start a career with an apprenticeship in a Berufsschule ( vocational school). And the passing system id different from other countries. German secondary schools follow points system (punkte). Berufsschule is normally attended twice a week during a two, three, or three-and-a-half-year apprenticeship; the other days are spent working at a company. This is intended to provide a knowledge of theory and practice. The company is obliged to accept the apprentice on its apprenticeship scheme. After this, the apprentice is registered on a list at the Industrie- und Handelskammer (IHK) (chamber of industry and commerce). During the apprenticeship, the apprentice is a part-time salaried employee of the company. After passing the Berufsschule and the exit exams of the IHK, a certificate is awarded and the young person is ready for a career up to a low management level. In some areas, the schemes teach certain skills that are a legal requirement (special positions in a bank, legal assistants).

Some special areas provide different paths. After attending any of the above schools and gaining a leaving certificate like Hauptschulabschluss, Mittlere Reife (or Realschulabschuss, from a Realschule) or Abitur from a Gymnasium or a Gesamtschule, school leavers can start a career with an apprenticeship at a Berufsschule ( vocational school). Here the student is registered with certain bodies, e.g. associations such as the German Bar Association (Deutsche Rechtsanwaltskammer, GBA) (board of directors). During the apprenticeship, the young person is a part-time salaried employee of the institution, bank, physician or attorney's office. After leaving the Berufsfachschule and passing the exit examinations set by the German Bar Association or other relevant associations, the apprentice receives a certificate and is ready for a career at all levels except in positions which require a specific higher degree, such as a doctorate. In some areas, the apprenticeship scheme teaches skills that are required by law, including certain positions in a bank or those as legal assistants. The 16 states have exclusive responsibility in the field of education and professional education. The federal parliament and the federal government can influence the educational system only by financial aid to the states. There are many different school systems, but in each state the starting point is always the Grundschule (elementary school) for a period of four years; or six years in the case of Berlin and Brandenburg.

Percentage of jobholders holding Hauptschulabschluss, Realschulabschluss or Abitur in Germany

	1970	1982	1991	2000
Hauptschulabschluss	87.7%	79.3%	66.5%	54.9%
Realschulabschluss	10.9%	17.7%	27%	34.1%
Abitur	1.4%	3%	6.5%	11%

Grades 5 and 6 form an orientation or testing phase (Orientierungs- or Erprobungsstufe) during which students, their parents and teachers decide which of the above-mentioned paths the students should follow. In all states except Berlin and Brandenburg, this orientation phase is embedded into the program of the secondary schools. The decision for a secondary school influences the student's future, but during this phase changes can be made more easily. In practice this rarely comes to bear because teachers are afraid of sending pupils to more academic schools whereas parents are afraid of sending their children to less academic schools. In Berlin and Brandenburg, the orientation is embedded into that of the elementary schools. Teachers give a so-called educational (path) recommendation (Bildungs(gang)empfehlung) based on scholastic achievements in the main subjects (mathematics, German, natural sciences, foreign language) and classroom behavior with details and legal implications differing from state to state: in some German states, those wishing to apply to a Gymnasium or Realschule require such a recommendation stating that the student is likely to make a successful transition to that type of school; in other cases anyone may apply. In Berlin 30% – 35% of Gymnasium places are allocated by lottery. A student's performance at primary school is immaterial.^{[citation needed]} While the entry year is depending on the last year in the Grundschule stepping back or skipping a grade is possible between 7th and 10th grade and only stepping back between 5th and 6th grade (so called Erprobungsstufe, meaning testing grade) and 11th and 12th grade.

The eastern states Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt and Thuringia combine Hauptschule and Realschule into Sekundarschule, Mittelschule and Regelschule respectively. All German states have Gymnasium as one possibility for the more able children, and all states—except Saxony—have some Gesamtschulen, but in different forms. The states of Berlin and Hamburg have only two types of schools: comprehensive schools and Gymnasium.

Learning a foreign language is compulsory throughout Germany in secondary schools and English is one of the more popular choices. Students at certain Gymnasium are required to learn Latin as their first foreign language and choose a second foreign language. The list of available foreign languages as well as the hours of compulsory foreign language lessons differ from state to state, but the more common choices besides Latin are English, French, Spanish, and ancient Greek. Many schools also offer voluntary study groups for the purpose of learning other languages. At which stage students begin learning a foreign language differs from state to state and is tailored to the cultural and socio-economical dynamics of each state. In some states, foreign language education starts in Grundschule (primary school). For example, in North Rhine-Westphalia and Lower Saxony, English starts in the third year of elementary school. Baden-Württemberg starts with English or French in the first year. The Saarland, which borders France, begins with French in the third year of primary school and French is taught in high school as the main foreign language.

It may cause problems in terms of education for families that plan to move from one German state to another as there are partially completely different curricula for nearly every subject.^{[citation needed]}

Realschule students gain the chance to take their Abitur at a Gymnasium with a good degree in the Realschulabschluss. Stepping up is always provided by the school system.^{[clarification needed]} Adults who did not achieve a Realschulabschluss or Abitur, or reached its equivalent, have the option of attending evening classes at an Abendgymnasium or Abendrealschule.

School organization

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A few organizational central points are listed below. It should however be noted that due to the decentralized nature of the education system there are many more additional differences across the 16 states of Germany.

• Every state has its own school system.
• Each age group of students (born roughly in the same year) forms one or more grades or classes (Klassen) per school which remain the same for elementary school (years 1 to 4 or 6), orientation school (if there are orientation schools in the state), orientation phase (at Gymnasium years 5 to 6), and secondary school (years 5 or 7 to 10 in Realschulen and Hauptschulen; years 5 or 7 to 10 (differences between states) in Gymnasien) respectively. Changes are possible, though, when there is a choice of subjects, e.g. additional languages; Then classes will be split (and newly merged) either temporarily or permanently for this particular subject.
• Students usually sit at tables, not desks (usually two at one table), sometimes arranged in a semicircle or another geometric or functional shape. During exams in classrooms, the tables are sometimes arranged in columns with one pupil per table (if permitted by the room's capacities) to prevent cheating; at many schools, this is only the case for some exams in the two final years of school, i.e. some of the exams counting for the final grade on the high school diploma.
• There is usually no school uniform or dress code. Many private schools have a simplified dress code, for instance, such as "no shorts, no sandals, no clothes with holes". Some schools are testing school uniforms, but those are not as formal as seen in the UK. They mostly consist of a normal sweater/shirt and jeans of a certain color, sometimes with the school's symbol on it. It is however a common custom to design graduation class shirts in Gymnasium, Realschule and Hauptschule.
• School usually starts between 7.30 a.m. and 8:15 a.m. and can finish as early as 12; instruction in lower classes^[which?] almost always ends before lunch. In higher grades^[which?], however, afternoon lessons are very common and periods may have longer gaps without teacher supervision between them. Usually, afternoon classes are not offered every day and/or continuously until early evening, leaving students with large parts of their afternoons free of school; some all-day schools (Ganztagsschulen), however, offer classes or mainly-supervised activities throughout the afternoons to offer supervision for the students rather than increasing teaching hours. Afternoon lessons can continue until 6 o'clock.
• Depending on school, there are breaks of 5 to 20 minutes after each period. There is no lunch break as school usually finishes before 1:30 for junior school. However, at schools with Nachmittagsunterricht (afternoon classes) ending after 1:30, there may be a lunch break of 45 to 90 minutes, though many schools lack any special break in general. Some schools have regular breaks of 5 minutes between every lesson and have additional 10 or 15-minute breaks after the second and fourth lesson.
• In German state schools lessons have a length of exactly 45 minutes. Each subject is usually taught for two to three periods every week (main subjects like mathematics, German or foreign languages are taught for four to six periods) and usually no more than two periods consecutively. The beginning of every period and, usually, break is announced with an audible signal such as a bell.
• Exams (which are always supervised) are usually essay-based, rather than multiple choice. As of 11th grade, exams usually consist of no more than three separate exercises. While most exams in the first grades of secondary schools usually span no more than 90 minutes, exams in 10th to 12th grade may span four periods or more (without breaks).
• At every type of school, pupils study one foreign language (in most cases English) for at least five years. The study of languages is, however, far more rigorous and literature-oriented in Gymnasium. In Gymnasium, students can choose from a wider range of languages (mostly English, French, Russian—mostly in east German Bundesländer.—or Latin) as the first language in 5th grade, and a second mandatory language in 7th grade. Some types of Gymnasium also require an additional third language (such as Spanish, Italian, Russian, Latin or Ancient Greek) or an alternative subject (usually based on one or two other subjects, e.g. British politics (English and politics), dietetics (biology) or media studies (arts and German) in 9th or 11th grade. Gymnasiums normally offer further subjects starting at 11th grade, with some schools offering a fourth foreign language.
• A number of schools once had a Raucherecke (smokers' corner), a small area of the schoolyard where students over the age of eighteen are permitted to smoke on their breaks. Those special areas were banned in the states of Berlin, Hessen, and Hamburg, Brandenburg at the beginning of the 2005–06 school year. (Bavaria, Schleswig-Holstein, Lower Saxony 2006–07)). Schools in these states prohibit smoking for students and teachers and offences at school will be punished. All other states in Germany introduced similar laws in the aftermath of EU regulations on smoking.
• As state schools are public, smoking is universally prohibited inside the buildings. Smoking teachers are generally asked not to smoke while at or near school.
• Students over 14 years are permitted to leave the school compound during breaks at some schools. Teachers or school personnel tend to prevent younger students from leaving early and strangers from entering the compound without permission.
• Tidying up the classroom and schoolyard is often the task of the students themselves. Unless a group of volunteering students, individuals are being picked sequentially.
• Many schools have AGs or Arbeitsgemeinschaften (clubs) for afternoon activities such as sports, music or acting, but participation is not necessarily common. Some schools also have student volunteer mediators trained to resolve conflicts between their classmates or younger students.
• Few schools have actual sports teams that compete with other schools. Even if the school has a sports team, students are not necessarily very aware of it.^{[citation needed]}
• While student newspapers used to be very common until the late 20th century, with new issues often produced every couple of months, many of them are now very short-lived, usually vanishing when the class graduates. Student newspapers are often financed mostly by advertisements.
• Schools don't often have their own radio stations or TV channels; larger universities often have a local student-run radio station.
• Although most German schools and state universities do not have classrooms equipped with a computer for each student, schools usually have at least one or two computer rooms and most universities offer a limited number of rooms with computers on every desk. State school computers are usually maintained by the same exclusive contractor in the entire city and updated slowly. Internet access is often provided by phone companies free of charge.
• At the end of their schooling, students usually undergo a cumulative written and oral examination (Abitur in Gymnasien or Abschlussprüfung in Realschulen and Hauptschulen). Students leaving Gymnasium after 9th grade have the Hauptschule leaving examination and after 10th grade they have the Mittlere Reife (leaving examination of the Realschule, also called Mittlerer Schulabschluss).
• After 10th grade Gymnasium students may leave school for at least one year of job education if they do not wish to continue. Realschule and Hauptschule students who have passed their Abschlussprüfung may decide to continue schooling at a Gymnasium, but are sometimes required to take additional courses to catch up.
• Corporal punishment was banned in 1949 in East Germany and in 1973 in West Germany
• Fourth grade (or sixth, depending on the state) is often quite stressful for students of lower performance and their families. Many feel tremendous pressure when trying to achieve placement in Gymnasium, or at least when attempting to avoid placement in Hauptschule. Germany is unique compared to other western countries in its early segregation of students based on academic achievement.

School year

[edit | edit source] The school year starts after the summer break (different from state to state, usually end/mid of August) and is divided into two terms. There are typically 12 weeks of holidays in addition to public holidays. Exact dates differ between states, but there are generally six weeks of summer and two weeks of Christmas holiday. The other holiday periods occur in spring (during the period around Easter Sunday) and autumn (during the former harvest, where farmers used to need their children for field work). In some states schools can also schedule two or three special days off per term.