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Sod

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Turf)
For other uses, see Sod (disambiguation).
"Turf" redirects here. For an alternative expression, see Grass. For the Irish expression, see Peat. For other uses, see Turf (disambiguation). Not to be confused with Gender-critical feminism, also referred to by the acronym "TERF".

Turf rolls

Sod is the upper layer of turf that is harvested for transplanting. Turf consists of a variable thickness of a soil medium that supports a community of turfgrasses.[1] In British and Australian English, sod is more commonly known as turf, and the word "sod" is limited mainly to agricultural senses. Sod is typically made with grasses that spread laterally through the soil and form a dense mat.

Sod is used for establishing lawns or other greenways, in spaces like golf courses or sports stadiums. Typically, after construction or other kinds of landscape disruption, builders, owners and landscape specialist will place sod to establish a grass cover.

Sod is grown on specialized farms, where the grass, is grown for 12-18 months before specialized farm equipment cuts the sod from the top layer of the soil and makes it ready for transport. Sod is often cut in either squares or rolls, that make it easier for transportation and distribution. Different species of grass are grown in different geographies, because of the different climatic conditions. More recently, some producers have developed turf mixes that include wildflowers and other native plants.

Uses

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Sod is generally used for lawns, golf courses, and sports stadiums around the world. In residential construction, it is sold to landscapers, home builders or home owners who use it to establish a lawn quickly and avoid soil erosion. Sod can be used to repair a small area of lawn,[2] golf course, or athletic field that has died and is used as a quicker alternative to re-growing a lawn from seed.[3] Sod is also effective in increasing cooling, improving air and water quality, and assisting in flood prevention by draining water.[4]

Sod was historically used as a building material in various parts of the world, including settlers in the American grassland and in Scandanavia. Modern construction sometimes includes similar applications in Green roofs

Scandinavia has a long history of employing sod roofing and a traditional house type is the Icelandic turf house.

In the United States, following the passage of the Homestead Act by Congress in 1862, settlers in the Great Plains used sod bricks to build entire sod houses.[5] This was effective because the prairie sod of the Great Plains was so dense and difficult to cut it earned the nickname "Nebraska marble". Blacksmith John Deere made his fortune when he became the first to make a plow that could reliably cut the prairie sod.[6]

Different types of grass are used for sod installation.[7][8]

Cultivation

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Sod is grown on specialist farms and is usually grown locally within 100 miles (160 km) of the target market.[9] Minimizing both the cost of transport along with the risk of damage to the product. The farms that produce this grass may have many varieties of grass grown in one location to best suit the consumer's use and preference.

Harvesting sod
Harvesting sod
Golf course sod

It is usually harvested 10 to 18 months after planting, depending on the growing climate. During cultivation, it undergoes fertilization, frequent mowing, watering, and in some cases vacuuming to remove the clippings. It is harvested using specialized equipment, precision cut to standardized sizes. Sod is typically harvested in small square or rolled rectangular slabs, or large 4 feet (1.2 m) wide rolls.

Prior to commercial sod cultivation, prospective consumers would pay farmers to cut and harvest their pasture.[10][11]

Mississippi State University developed a hydroponic method of cultivating sod in 2006. For the limited number of sod farms that export turf internationally, this soilless sod may ship more efficiently and with less weight than traditional sod. Additionally, because it's not grown in soil, they don't need to be washed down to bare roots or sprigs, which shortens the time and cost required for export.[12]

Impact on soils

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One study of sod farms in Turkey found significant loss of topsoil and key nutrients when harvesting sod, more than other kinds of agriculture in the region.[13]

Immediacy

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In many applications, such as erosion control and athletic fields, immediacy is a key factor. Seed may be blown about by the wind, eaten by birds, or fail because of drought. It takes some weeks to form a visually appealing lawn and further time before it is robust enough for use. Sod largely avoids these problems, and with proper care, newly laid sod is usually fully functional within 30 days of installation and its root system is comparable to that of a seeding lawn two to three years older.[14] Sod also reduces erosion by stabilizing the soil.[15]

Many cultivars and some species can only be reproduced vegetatively rather than sexually (via seed).[16] For these, sod cultivation is the only means of producing additional plants. To grow these varieties, turf farms use a technique called sprigging, where recently harvested sod mats are cut into slender rows and replanted in the field.

Species used

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A typical roller mower operating on a sod grass farm

Fescue grass

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Tall fescue

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Tall fescue (Lolium arundinaceum) is a cool season grass type originating in Europe, commonly used as sod. It is moderately tolerant to both drought and temperature extremes. As such, it is especially popular in many temperate environments, known in the turf and landscaping industries as the "transition zone". In these areas, summers are too hot for most cool season grasses, while winters are too cold for most warm season grasses. Tall Fescue is well adapted to various soils, moderately shade tolerant, and somewhat resistant to most disease, yet vulnerable to Brown patch and Pythium blight. It grows most actively (and thus provides the most desirable appearance) in spring and fall, and requires moderate watering during summer. Due to its bunch type growth habit, which is unique among common sod grasses, it does not spread aggressively or invade adjacent areas once established. However, it also does not actively fill in bare spots, and periodic maintenance (such as overseeding) may be required to maintain a uniform surface. This bunch type growing habit contributes to a somewhat lower wear tolerance compared to Kentucky Bluegrass or Bermuda grass, making it less commonly used for purposes such as athletic fields.[17][18][19]

Fine fescues

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Fine fescues (F. rubra, F. rubra subsp. commutata, F. trichophylla) are less popular as sod than the tall fescues. As their names suggest, they exhibit much thinner leaf blades, and tolerate lower mowing heights than the tall fescues. They may be somewhat more resistant to common diseases and most generally prefer cool, shadier climates. Otherwise, their characteristics are similar, except for Creeping Red fescues (F. rubra), which spread via rhizomes and can form a dense sod. Fine fescues are generally used in mixtures with other grasses for shade and soil quality tolerance.[20]

Kentucky Bluegrass

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Kentucky Bluegrass (Poa pratensis) (also known as Common or Smooth-stocked Meadow grass) is widely used in sod production and lawns throughout cool season areas worldwide due to its cold tolerance, appearance, and ability to form a dense turf base. This species spreads via seed and underground rhizomes, allowing it to establish a strong root system that contributes to its natural sod-forming characteristics. Qualities that are especially important for commercial sod production and use.[21]

Numerous cultivars have been developed to enhance specific traits such as drought resistance, shade tolerance, handling of disease, and overall turf quality. Cultivars such as 'Midnight', 'Barserati', and 'Blue Note' have consistently performed well in several trials, showing strong seasonal performance and resistance to common turfgrass diseases such as Grey leaf spot and Dollar spot..[22]

Bella Bluegrass

Bella Bluegrass was developed by the University of Nebraska–Lincoln as a drought resistant grass with potential to help conserve water.[23] It is the first commercial dwarf, vegetative bluegrass and is sold only as sod and plugs. The cultivar has pronounced lateral growth but has minimal vertical growth, only growing to about 4 inches in height. It grows in sand, clay, muck, and peat soils, and has seen some adoption across the northern United States.[24]

Zoysia grass

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Zoysia (Zoysia sp.) (Also known as Manila grass or Lawngrass in areas of the Far East) is a warm season turfgrass native to Asia and naturalized primarily in the Americas. Common species used for turf include Zoysia japonica and Zoysia matrella, including various hybrids of both.[25] The grass spreads gradually by means of both rhizomes and stolons. A growth habit that typically results in a dense turf base that can suppress the establishment of some weeds. Zoysia's slow dense growth is also prone to developing a substantial layer of thatch. Which is a mixture of dead and living organic material at the soil surface that can slow water and nutrients from reaching the roots and may require periodic removal.[26][25] This density also provides tolerance to extreme temperatures, drought, and traffic.[27]

Because the grass germinates and grows slowly, establishment from seed is often unsuccessful and is typically planted as sod or plugs.[28] Compared to many turfgrasses typical in cool season regions, established Zoysia generally requires less irrigation and fertilization during the growing season.[27] Conversely, its slow growth rate means it is also slow to recover from damage or disease.[25] As a warm season grass, it enters dormancy and turns light brown after the first hard frost and generally breaks said dormancy when soil temperatures consistently rise above 50 °F (10 °C).[28]

Bermuda grass

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Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon) (also known as Couch grass in Oceania) is commonly used in lawns and for sports surfaces across the southern half of the United States, parts of the Lower Midwest, and in other warmer areas around the world.[29][30] It typically tolerates a wide range of climates where warm season perennials are regularly cultivated.[31] Established bermuda grass has a network of shoots, rhizomes, stolons, and crown tissue together that usually form a dense plant canopy.[32] This dense plant canopy can be used to propagate clonal varieties by sod, sprigs, or plugs.[33][34] The aggressive nature of bermuda grass makes it not only a hardy turfgrass but also a challenging and invasive weed in land used for other purposes.[35] Its two noted weaknesses are a low tolerance of shade and extended, prolonged periods of unprotected exposure to temperatures under 15 °F (−9 °C).[36] Given the economic importance of bermuda grass (as a turf product, agricultural forage, and, at times, as an invasive weed), it has been the subject of numerous studies.[37]

Celebration

Celebration is a dark green aggressive, traffic tolerant cultivar with high drought tolerance.[38] The varietal is a hybrid of bermuda grass that was originally developed in Australia.[39] Along with many golf courses across the southern United States, the Tampa Bay Buccaneers elected to install the cultivar in their stadium.[40]

TifTuf

TifTuf is a commonly used hybrid of Bermuda grass developed at the University of Georgia - Tifton Campus, as part of its long standing turfgrass breeding program. The program has produced several broadly cultivated Bermuda grass varieties for many decades, such as Tifway 419, which remains widely used for sports fields and lawns.[41][42][43]

St. Augustine grass

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St. Augustine grass (Stenotaphrum secundatum) (also known as Charleston grass in South Carolina and Buffalo grass or turf in Australia) is a warm season, perennial grass that is widely used.[44][45] The species is of disputed origin and is found throughout many subtropical areas of the United States. This grass is also commonly found and planted in built-up coastal areas across Australasia, Latin America, and low-lying portions of Sub-Saharan Africa.[46][47]

As a tropical warm season grass, it has limited tolerance to cold weather, lacking the pronounced winter dormancy and/or rhizomatous growth traits typically found in most common turfgrasses. It typically enters semi-dormancy or suffers severe damage at sustained temperatures around 32 °F (0 °C), and does not resume active growth until soil and air temperatures regularly exceed approximately 60 °F (16 °C).[48][49]

The vast majority of this grass is established using plugs or sod, since viable seeds are rarely available outside of research settings due to production challenges.[50][51]

Floratam:

Floratam is a common, widely planted cultivar developed jointly by the University of Florida and Texas A&M AgriLife. It was officially released in 1973 in response to widespread damage from St. Augustine Decline virus (SAD) and the Southern chinch bug, though resistance to the insect has decreased over time.[52][53] Floratam does generally not tolerant dense shade and can suffer permanent cold damage below 40 °F (4 °C). Like other commercial cultivars it spreads via stolons and must be planted as sod, plugs, or sprigs, as the seeds it produces are sterile.[54]

Centipedegrass

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Centipedegrass (Eremochloa ophiuroides) was introduced into the United States from southeastern Asia in 1916. It does well in the climate and soils of northern Florida and low lying areas of the Deep South. It is the most common home lawn grass in the Florida Panhandle.[55] Centipedegrass is generally considered a slow growing, low maintenance warm season turfgrass, that has lower nutrient demands than a typical warms season grass. Due to this growth habit it typically requires less mowing and fertilization than several other turfgrass species.[56][57] The species also usually holds its green color later into the fall than many other warm season turfs and tends to green up early in the spring.[58]

TifBlair

TifBlair is a frequently planted cultivar of centipedegrass used for low input lawns and general turf areas in home and commercial settings. It's cultivated for said applications due to its very slow rate of vertical growth and low maintenance requirements.The hybrid was primarily developed in and named after Blairsville, Georgia and was released in the mid 1990s.[59][60] TifBlair is also widely available as seed in addition to typical sod products.[61]

Wildflower turf

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See also: Natural landscaping

Wildflower turf (also called Bee or Pollinator grass) is a type of lawn alternative made up of a mixture of wildflower seeds. It is also mixed with common turf or native grasses in many commercial blends. The seeds are sown together and grow to form a lawn of flowers, rather than the monoculture of grass typical in a highly managed lawn. These type of plantings are generally considered a specialty turf and are rarely used in large scale sod production. This grass mix can be a low-maintenance and sustainable alternative to traditional lawns, as well as providing a habitat for beneficial insects and other wildlife. It often requires less watering and fertilization than traditional lawns.[62] Wildflower turf can be used in the restoration of natural habitats, such as meadows, prairies, and wetlands. It is used on green roofs to provide a low-maintenance alternative to traditional green roof systems. Seed blends of this type can also help to capture carbon from the atmosphere, helping to mitigate the effects of climate change and to purify the air by absorbing pollutants and releasing oxygen.[63]

Natural turf communities

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Low growing vegetation is referred to as "turf communities" in areas where such growth is not common, as in moss-turf communities of sub Antarctica,[64] some epifauna in the sea,[65] coral reefs[66] and, in New Zealand, as species-rich communities of plants under 5 cm (1.97 in) tall, on coastal headlands, dune hollows, rivers and lakes,[67] where most of the natural cover was forest.[68] A form of turf community is a herbfield.

Pest Damage

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Disease

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Turfgrasses suffer from a wide number of fungal diseases as well as some bacterial infections. Significantly improved sampling methodology for testing was introduced in 2023.[69]

Insects and Wildlife

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Many plants, including most grasses, are highly susceptible to white grubs and other insects that primarily develop in the larval stage below ground. The larvae feed on the roots of the host plant, reducing its ability to absorb water and nutrients needed to stay healthy.[70] The damage is often worsened by moles, raccoons, birds, and other local wildlife that dig up the turf in search of them.[71] The most common beetle species responsible include the European chafer, June beetles, Asiatic garden beetle, and Japanese beetle.[72]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Turgeon, Alfred J.; Kaminiski, John E. (2019). Turfgrass management (Edition 1.0 ed.). State College, Pennsylvania: Turfpath. ISBN 978-1-7332881-0-1.
  2. ^ "Use Sod For Quick Repair Of Damaged Lawns". Louisiana State University, Agricultural Center, Research and Extension. Archived from the original on 29 September 2011. Retrieved 1 December 2011.
  3. ^ "Unsure How to Lay Turf? Use This Simple Laying Guide".
  4. ^ "Why Sod is Good for the Planet". Sod Growers Council. Archived from the original on 18 October 2014. Retrieved 14 June 2014.
  5. ^ "Life in a Sod House". Smithsonian. Retrieved 17 March 2013.
  6. ^ "The Tallgrass Prairie: An Endangered Landscape". CSA. Archived from the original on 22 July 2013. Retrieved 20 March 2013.
  7. ^ "Different Types of Sod Grass For Cool Seasons". My Landscapers. Retrieved 20 March 2018.
  8. ^ "marathon seed". My sod. Retrieved 20 March 2018.
  9. ^ "Sod Production: From an Economic Standpoint". MU Plant Sciences, University of Missouri. Archived from the original on 12 May 2013. Retrieved 20 March 2013.
  10. ^ Pickseed, Martin Pick-Co-founder of (9 June 2022). "How Kentucky Bluegrass Came to Play a Big Part in Everyone's Lives". Seed World. Retrieved 10 July 2025.
  11. ^ "The Turfgrass Sod Market" (PDF). Weed Trees And Turf. 27 August 1980.
  12. ^ Ratliff, Bob. "MSU-Developed Sod" (PDF). Mississippi Landmarks Magazine, Volume 2 Number 4. Division of Agriculture, Forestry, and Veterinary Medicine at Mississippi State University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 June 2010. Retrieved 25 March 2013.
  13. ^ Parlak, Mehmet; Everest, Timuçin; Ruis, Sabrina J.; Blanco, Humberto (19 August 2020). "Impact of urbanization on soil loss: a case study from sod production". Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 192 (9): 588. Bibcode:2020EMnAs.192..588P. doi:10.1007/s10661-020-08549-y. ISSN 1573-2959. PMID 32815002.
  14. ^ "The High Cost of Instant Gratification; To Sod or to Seed?". Streamline Publications. Archived from the original on 8 October 2011. Retrieved 1 December 2011.
  15. ^ "Sod vs. Seed". Central Sod Farms, Inc. Archived from the original on 8 October 2011. Retrieved 1 December 2011.
  16. ^ Shearman, Robert C.; et al. "US Patent Application Poa pratensis L. named 'NE-KYB-05-001'". US Patent and Trademark Office. Archived from the original on 31 March 2017. Retrieved 27 March 2013.
  17. ^ "Tall Fescue | Department of Horticulture | Oregon State University". horticulture.oregonstate.edu. Archived from the original on 27 March 2018. Retrieved 27 March 2018.
  18. ^ Service, Martin Anderson, Texas AgriLife Extension. "Tall Fescue | Archives | Aggie Horticulture". aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu. Retrieved 27 March 2018.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  19. ^ Patton, Aaron; Boyd, John. "Choosing a Grass for Arkansas Lawns" (PDF). University of Arkansas - Division of Agriculture - Cooperative Extension Service. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 March 2018.
  20. ^ "The Fine Fescues | Department of Horticulture | Oregon State University". horticulture.oregonstate.edu. Retrieved 27 March 2018.[permanent dead link]
  21. ^ Beard, J.B. (2002). Turfgrass Management for Golf Courses (2nd ed.). Ann Arbor Press.
  22. ^ National Turfgrass Evaluation Program. (2024). 2020 Kentucky Bluegrass Test Progress Report NTEP No. 24-1. Beltsville, MD: USDA/ARS. NTEP Report
  23. ^ John Hollenhorst New variety of Kentucky Bluegrass could conserve water Deseret News, Retrieved 20 September 2011
  24. ^ What's New From What's From Buff To Blue: Grasses For a Green Environment Archived 12 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine University of Nebraska–Lincoln, Retrieved 31 January 2911
  25. ^ a b c Henry, J. M.; Hart, J. "Zoysiagrass". NC State Extension. Retrieved 23 July 2025.
  26. ^ Chalmers, D. R.; McAfee, J. "Zoysiagrass" (PDF). Texas A&M AgriLife Extension. Retrieved 23 July 2025.
  27. ^ a b Kauer, K.; Brosnan, J. T. "Zoysiagrass" (PDF). University of Tennessee Institute of Agriculture. Retrieved 23 July 2025.
  28. ^ a b Patton, A.; Boyd, J. (2020). "Zoysiagrass for Arkansas Lawns" (PDF). University of Arkansas Research & Extension. Publication No. FSA6125. Retrieved 23 July 2025.
  29. ^ "Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon) Plant Profile". USDA NRCS. Retrieved 31 July 2025.
  30. ^ "Plant Guide: Bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon)" (PDF). USDA NRCS. 2021. Retrieved 31 July 2025.
  31. ^ "Plant Guide: Bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon)" (PDF). USDA NRCS. 2021. Retrieved 31 July 2025.
  32. ^ "Structural modifications in Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon) for stress adaptation". Frontiers in Plant Science. 13: 1084706. 2022. doi:10.3389/fpls.2022.1084706.
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  35. ^ "Bermudagrass Management in California". UC Agriculture and Natural Resources. 2019. Retrieved 31 July 2025.
  36. ^ Shi, Hua; Wang, Yin (2012). "Analysis of natural variation in bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon) reveals physiological responses underlying drought tolerance". PLOS ONE. 7 (12): e53422. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...753422S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0053422. PMC 3532450. PMID 23285294.
  37. ^ "Alternative methods to synthetic chemical control of Cynodon dactylon". Agronomy for Sustainable Development. 43. 2023. doi:10.1007/s13593-023-00904-w.
  38. ^ "Bermudagrass" (PDF). University of Hawaii. Retrieved 19 March 2013.
  39. ^ Sod Solutions announces death of turfgrass developer Rod Riley World Golf, 5 December 2008
  40. ^ Citrus Bowl getting new sod retrieved 8 January 2010
  41. ^ "TifTuf Bermuda - Turfgrass Innovations - UGA". Retrieved 21 July 2025.
  42. ^ "Breeding - GeorgiaTurf". turf.caes.uga.edu. Retrieved 21 July 2025.
  43. ^ "Lawns in Georgia: Selection and Species". UGA Cooperative Extension. University of Georgia. Retrieved 29 July 2025.
  44. ^ "Stenotaphrum secundatum (Walter) Kuntze". USDA PLANTS Database. Retrieved 31 July 2025.
  45. ^ "St. Augustinegrass Yearly Maintenance Program". Clemson Cooperative Extension. 2018. Retrieved 31 July 2025.
  46. ^ Trenholm, Laurie E.; Schiavon, Marco; Unruh, J. Bryan; Shaddox, Travis W.; Kenworthy, Kevin E. (12 April 2011). "St. Augustinegrass for Florida Lawns". University of Florida IFAS Extension. Retrieved 31 July 2025.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  47. ^ "Stenotaphrum secundatum (St. Augustine Grass) - FSUS". fsus.ncbg.unc.edu. Retrieved 31 July 2025.
  48. ^ "Warm-Season Grass Selection". Clemson Cooperative Extension. Retrieved 22 July 2025.
  49. ^ Beard, James B. (1971). "Environmental Stress Resistance in Warm-Season Turfgrasses". USGA Green Section Record. 9 (3): 13–18.
  50. ^ "St. Augustinegrass Lawn Management" (PDF). AggieTurf. Texas A&M AgriLife Extension Service. Retrieved 29 July 2025.
  51. ^ Ricketts, Grantly (7 June 2023). "St Augustine Grass - Did You Know?". UF/IFAS Extension Osceola County. Retrieved 31 July 2025.
  52. ^ Trenholm, L.; Unruh, J. (May 2017). "St. Augustinegrass for Florida Lawns". University of Florida IFAS Extension. Retrieved 29 July 2025.
  53. ^ "Collaboration Between Texas A&M and University of Florida Creates Popular Lawn Grass". Texas A&M Today. 6 September 2012. Retrieved 29 July 2025.
  54. ^ "Floratam St. Augustine Sod". Floridist. 12 April 2025. Retrieved 29 July 2025.
  55. ^ J. B. Unruh, L. E. Trenholm, and J. L. Cisar Centipedegrass for Florida Lawns
  56. ^ McCarty, Bert (January 2016). "Centipedegrass". Home & Garden Information Center (HGIC). Clemson University Cooperative Extension. Retrieved 30 July 2025.
  57. ^ "Centipedegrass Yearly Maintenance Program". Home & Garden Information Center (HGIC). Clemson University Cooperative Extension. August 2024. Retrieved 30 July 2025.
  58. ^ Unruh, J. Bryan (March 2024). "Centipedegrass for Florida Lawns". EDIS. University of Florida IFAS Extension. Retrieved 30 July 2025.
  59. ^ Hanna, Wayne; Brosnan, J.T.; Breeden, G.K. "TifBlair Centipedegrass (Eremochloa ophiuroides (Munro) Hack.)". USDA Agricultural Research Service. Retrieved 30 July 2025.
  60. ^ Goatley, J.M.; Brosnan, J.T.; Breeden, G.K. (October 2023). "Turfgrass Selection Centipedegrass" (PDF). University of Tennessee Institute of Agriculture. p. 2. Retrieved 30 July 2025.
  61. ^ "TifBlair Centipede – Georgia's Integrated Cultivar Release System". georgiacultivars.com. Georgia's Integrated Cultivar Release System. Retrieved 30 July 2025.
  62. ^ Network, Nicolette Fox for the Guardian Professional (16 May 2013). "Wildflower Turf: protecting the birds and the bees". the Guardian. Retrieved 25 January 2023.
  63. ^ "Wildflower meadow habitats". Forest Research. Retrieved 25 January 2023.
  64. ^ Usher, M. B. (1983). "Pattern in the Simple Moss-Turf Communities of the Sub-Antarctic and Maritime Antarctic". Journal of Ecology. 71 (3): 945–958. Bibcode:1983JEcol..71..945U. doi:10.2307/2259604. JSTOR 2259604.
  65. ^ "European Red List of Habitats - Marine Habitat Group A4.13 Mixed faunal turf communities on high energy Atlantic upper circalittoral rock" (PDF). European Environment Information Network. 17 August 2015. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 November 2020.
  66. ^ Littler, Mark M.; Littler, Diane S. (2011). "Algae, Turf". In Hopley, David (ed.). Encyclopedia of Modern Coral Reefs. Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. Springer Netherlands. pp. 38–39. doi:10.1007/978-90-481-2639-2_174. ISBN 9789048126385.
  67. ^ "Natural turfs of diverse tiny plants". www.openspace.org.nz. Archived from the original on 7 November 2017. Retrieved 3 November 2017.
  68. ^ Peter Johnson, Geoff Rogers (October 2003). "Ephemeral wetlands and their turfs in New Zealand SCIENCE FOR CONSERVATION 230" (PDF). Department of Conservation.
  69. ^ Lane, Charles R.; Beales, Paul A.; Hughes, Kelvin J.D., eds. (30 July 2023). Fungal Plant Pathogens: Applied Techniques (2 ed.). GB: CABI. p. 147. doi:10.1079/9781800620575.0047. ISBN 978-1-80062-055-1.
  70. ^ "Japanese beetles in yards and gardens". extension.umn.edu. Retrieved 10 July 2025.
  71. ^ "Managing Skunk and Raccoon Damage to Lawns". Yard and Garden. Retrieved 10 July 2025.
  72. ^ Entomology, Purdue Extension. "Managing White Grubs In Turfgrass". extension.entm.purdue.edu. Retrieved 10 July 2025.
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sod.

Sod Production Factsheet - University of Kentucky

Scientific primer on warm & cool season grass types.

Overview of different cool season grass types and examples of seed blends.

Turfgrass Producers International (trade association)

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