Timeline of national independence

This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by adding missing items with reliable sources.

This list includes currently extant sovereign states (list) and states with limited recognition that have declared independence from a predecessor state or an occupying power. Various states have never declared independence throughout their formations and hence are not included in the main list on this page, including states that were formed by the unification of multiple independent states, such as the United Kingdom, United States, and Tanzania, including states that did declare independence, but whose most recent establishment was through other means, such as Haiti, which declared independence from France in 1804, but split into two states in 1806 and was reunified in 1820. These countries are given on a separate list below. The list does not include duplicated entries for states that have declared independence multiple times, only using the most recent one. Subnational entities are usually not included in the list. Some of these dates of independence might be disputed. Entries in the "events" table are written in the present tense.

Before 19th century

date	Previous entity	Newly independent entity	Event
September 3, 301	Roman Empire	San Marino	Traditionally given date
749	Abbasid Caliphate	Oman	Subject to vassalage to other powers for short periods throughout its history.
August 10, 843	Carolingian Empire	France	Treaty of Verdun, splitting the Frankish Empire into three states, one of which became France.
c. 950	Tui Manu'a Empire	Tonga	Subject to British protectorate from 1900 to 1970.
July 27, 1139	Leon	Portugal	In personal union with, and effective satellite state of, Spain between 1580 and 1640
November 5, 1271	Mongol Empire	China	Independent Chinese state reestablished with the collapse of the Mongol Empire. Earliest foundation of China disputed, but begins with either the Xia or Shang dynasty. Current government established in 1949
23 January 1579	Spanish Netherlands	Netherlands	Gained independence from Spain during the Eighty Years' War. Subject to French protectorate from 1806 to 1810, and French occupation from 1810 to 1813.
1616	Tibet	Bhutan	Subject to British protectorate from 1910 to 1947, and an Indian protectorate from 1947 to 1971.
February 8, 1649	Holy Roman Empire	Switzerland	Separated from Imperial sovereignty by the Peace of Westphalia
July 1747	Persia	Afghanistan	Independent as the Durrani Empire, subject to British protectorate from 1880 to 1919.

19th century to World War I

Year	Previous entity	Newly independent entity	Event
May 23, 1810	Spain	Argentina	Initially named United Provinces of the Río de la Plata until the signing of the Federal Pact in 1831.
May 14, 1811	Spain	Paraguay	Independence not formally declared until 1842.
November 4, 1813	Confederation of the Rhine	Liechtenstein	Confederation of the Rhine dissolved.
May 30, 1814	France	Andorra	Independence restored after French rule. Initial independence from Urgell in 1278.
May 30, 1814	France	Monaco	Independence restored after French rule. Initial independence from Genoa in 1297, interrupted by multiple Genoese occupations.
February 12, 1818	Spain	Chile	Independence restored after Spanish reconquest, Initial independence in 1810.
September 28, 1821	Spain	Mexico
January 4, 1822	Ottoman Empire	Greece	International recognition achieved in 1830.
September 7, 1822	Portugal	Brazil	Unrecognized by Portugal until 1825.
October 4, 1828	Brazil	Uruguay	Independence established by treaty as a buffer between Brazil and Argentina, which both previously claimed the region.
October 4, 1830	Netherlands	Belgium	Unrecognized by Netherlands until 1839.
November 19, 1832	Gran Colombia	Colombia	Dissolution of Gran Colombia. Initially named Republic of New Granada until the signing of the Constitution of Rionegro in 1863.
November 19, 1832	Gran Colombia	Ecuador	Dissolution of Gran Colombia.
November 19, 1832	Gran Colombia	Venezuela	Dissolution of Gran Colombia. Restoration of Independence, first established in 1811.
November 15, 1838	Central America	Costa Rica
June 19, 1839	Belgium	Luxembourg	Grand Duchy re-established by the Treaty of London in personal union with the Netherlands (until 1890).
August 25, 1839	Peru-Bolivia Confederation	Bolivia	Restoration of Independence, first proclaimed in 1825.
August 25, 1839	Peru-Bolivia Confederation	Peru	Restoration of Independence, first proclaimed in 1821.
July 26, 1847	United States	Liberia	Unrecognized by United States until 1862.
May 1, 1865	Spain	Dominican Republic	Independence restored after period of Spanish rule. Independence initially declared from Spain in 1821 as the Republic of Spanish Haiti, and from Haiti in 1844 with the current name.
July 1, 1867	United Kingdom	Canada	Britain continued to exercise some level of control until the Statute of Westminster. In personal union with the UK and many other countries.
March 17, 1878	Ottoman Empire	Bulgaria	Under Ottoman vassalage until 1908. Restoration of independence after Ottoman rule, initial foundation in 681.
November 29, 1898	Central America	Nicaragua	Independence restored after the dissolution of the Greater Republic of Central America, initial independence in 1838.
January 1, 1901	United Kingdom	Australia	Britain continued to exercise some level of control until the Statute of Westminster. In personal union with the UK and many other countries.
May 20, 1902	United States	Cuba	United States retained Isla de Pinos until 1925.
November 4, 1903	Colombia	Panama	Unrecognized by Colombia until 1922.
June 7, 1905	Sweden	Norway	Independence restored after Danish and Swedish rule. Initial establishment around 872.
September 26, 1907	United Kingdom	New Zealand	Britain continued to exercise some level of control until the Statute of Westminster. In personal union with the UK and many other countries.
May 31 1910	United Kingdom	South Africa	Britain continued to exercise some level of control until the Statute of Westminster. In personal union with the UK and many other countries until 1961.

Interwar period

Year	Previous entity	Newly independent entity	Event
December 6, 1917	Russia	Finland
October 17, 1918	Austria-Hungary	Hungary	Independence restored with the dissolution of Austria-Hungary. Initial establishment in 895. Stayed in personal union with Austria until November 16.
December 1, 1918	Denmark	Iceland	In personal union with Denmark until 1944.
February 15, 1921	China	Mongolia	Independence restored after Chinese occupation. Initial independence declared in 1911, first Mongolian state founded 1203.
January 14, 1922	Central American Federation	El Salvador	Independence restored after brief attempt at reunifying Central America, initial independence in 1841.
January 14, 1922	Central American Federation	Guatemala	Independence restored after brief attempt at reunifying Central America, initial independence in 1839.
January 14, 1922	Central American Federation	Honduras	Independence restored after brief attempt at reunifying Central America, initial independence in 1838.
March 15, 1922	United Kingdom	Egypt	Independence restored after a period of British rule. Initial establishment around 3150 BC.
December 6, 1922	United Kingdom	Ireland	Independence restored after direct British rule. In personal union with Britain until 1937. Initial establishment of first state called Ireland in 1177.
June 7, 1929	Italy	Vatican City	Established by the Lateran Treaty
October 3, 1932	United Kingdom	Iraq	Formerly a League of Nations mandate.
May 5, 1941	Italy	Ethiopia	Independence restored after Italian occupation. Initially established in 1270.
December 22, 1943	France	Lebanon	Formerly a League of Nations mandate.
December 22, 1943	France	Syria	Formerly a League of Nations mandate. Unrecognized by France until 1946.
July 22, 1944	Germany	Poland	Independence restored after German occupation. Initial establishment c. 960.
October 22, 1944	Germany	Albania	Independence restored after German occupation. Initial establishment in 1190.
April 27, 1945	Germany	Austria	Independence restored after German occupation. Initial establishment in 970 within the Holy Roman Empire.
August 15, 1945	Japan	Korea	Independence restored after Japanese occupation. Initial establishment in 2333 BC, but the country became divided into South Korea and North Korea in 1948 created from the American occupation zone in the south and Soviet occupation zone in the north.
August 17, 1945	Netherlands	Indonesia	Unrecognized by Netherlands until 1949. In personal union with the Netherlands until 1956.

Cold War

Year	Previous entity	Newly independent entity	Event
October 25, 1945	Japan	Taiwan	Handover of Japanese Formosa to the Republic of China, which has ruled the island ever since. Largely unrecognized.
March 2, 1946	United Kingdom and Soviet Union	Iran	Withdrawal of British troops from Iran following invasion and occupation in 1941, although Soviet troops wouldn’t withdraw until May 1946. Initial establishment in 678 BC. Previously invaded and occupied by the Macedonian Greeks, Arabs, and Mongols. The monarchy would be overthrown in 1979 and replaced by the Islamic Republic of Iran.
June 17, 1946	United Kingdom	Jordan	Previously a League of Nations Mandate.
July 4, 1946	United States	Philippines	Restoration of Independence after American rule. Initial declaration of independence in 1897
August 15, 1947	United Kingdom	India	In personal union with the UK and many other countries until 1950.
August 15, 1947	United Kingdom	Pakistan	In personal union with the UK and many other countries until 1956.
January 4, 1948	United Kingdom	Burma	Independence restored after British rule. Initial establishment in 849 Name changed to Myanmar in 1989.
February 4, 1948	United Kingdom	Ceylon	Renamed Sri Lanka in 1972. In personal union with the UK and many other countries until 1972.
May 14, 1948	United Kingdom	Israel	Previously a League of Nations mandate. Partially unrecognized. Initial establishment in 930 BC.
December 24, 1951	United Kingdom and France	Libya	Created by merging French and British-occupied areas in Libya with the independent Emirate of Cyrenaica. Initial founding in 1551
October 22, 1953	France	Laos	In December 2, 1975, The Pathet Lao, (Left-wing Revolutionary Force in Kingdom of Laos), control the country and takeover the power and abolished the Kingdom of Laos. Then it has become a Communist State as the People’s Democratic Republic of Laos. Initial establishment in 1353.
November 9, 1953	France	Cambodia	Independence restored after French protectorate status. Initial establishment in 802.
January 1, 1956	United Kingdom and Kingdom of Egypt	Sudan
March 20, 1956	France	Tunisia	Independence restored after period as a French protectorate. Initial independence in 1705
March 6, 1957	United Kingdom	Ghana	In personal union with the UK and many other countries until 1960.
August 14, 1957	France	Morocco	Independence restored after French protectorate. Initial founding in 788.
August 31, 1957	United Kingdom	Malaya	Name changed to Malaysia in 1963.
October 2, 1958	France	Guinea
January 1, 1960	France	Cameroon
April 27, 1960	France	Togo
June 20, 1960	France	Mali
June 26, 1960	France	Madagascar	Independence restored after French rule, initial establishment as Kingdom of Madagascar in 1817, a successor to the earlier Merina Kingdom.
June 30, 1960	Belgium	DR Congo	Named Zaire from 1971-1997. Now known as Democratic Republic of the Congo or Congo-Kinshasa.
July 1, 1960	Italy	Somalia
July 31, 1960	France	Dahomey	Renamed to Benin in 1975.
August 5, 1960	France	Upper Volta	Renamed to Burkina Faso in 1984.
August 7, 1960	France	Ivory Coast
August 8, 1960	France	Niger
August 11, 1960	France	Chad
August 13, 1960	France	Central African Republic	Central African Empire from 1976-1979.
August 15, 1960	France	Congo
August 16, 1960	United Kingdom	Cyprus
August 17, 1960	France	Gabon
August 20, 1960	Mali	Senegal
October 1, 1960	United Kingdom	Nigeria	In personal union with the UK and many other countries until 1963.
November 28, 1960	France	Mauritania
April 27, 1961	United Kingdom	Sierra Leone	In personal union with the UK and many other countries until 1971.
June 19, 1961	United Kingdom	Kuwait	Independence restored after period of British protectorate. Initial independence in 1752.
January 1, 1962	New Zealand	Samoa	Independence restored after German and New Zealand rule. Initial independence c. 1300.
July 1, 1962	Belgium	Burundi	Independence restored after German and Belgian protectorate. Initial establishment c. 1680.
July 1, 1962	Belgium	Rwanda	Independence restored after German and Belgian protectorate. Initial establishment around the 12th century.
July 5, 1962	France	Algeria	Independence restored after French colonial rule. Initial founding in 1516
August 6, 1962	United Kingdom	Jamaica	In personal union with the UK and many other countries.
August 31, 1962	United Kingdom	Trinidad and Tobago	In personal union with the UK and many other countries until 1976.
October 9, 1962	United Kingdom	Uganda	In personal union with the UK and many other countries until 1963.
November 12, 1963	United Kingdom	Kenya	In personal union with the UK and many other countries until 1964.
July 6, 1964	United Kingdom	Malawi	In personal union with the UK and many other countries until 1966.
September 21, 1964	United Kingdom	Malta	Independence restored after French and British rule. Initial independence in 1520. In personal union with the UK and many other countries until 1974.
October 24, 1964	United Kingdom	Zambia
February 18, 1965	United Kingdom	Gambia	In personal union with the UK and many other countries until 1970.
July 26, 1965	United Kingdom	Maldives	Independence restored after British protectorate. Previously subject to Portuguese protectorate from 1558 to 1573. Initial establishment before 1117.
August 4, 1965	New Zealand	Cook Islands	Partially unrecognized. In personal union with the UK and many other countries. In free association with New Zealand
August 9, 1965	Malaysia	Singapore	Forcibly expelled from Malaysia. Initial establishment in 1299.
May 26, 1966	United Kingdom	Guyana	In personal union with the UK and many other countries until 1970.
September 30, 1966	United Kingdom	Botswana
October 4, 1966	United Kingdom	Lesotho	Independence restored after period of British protectorate. Initial establishment around 1822.
November 30, 1966	United Kingdom	Barbados	In personal union with the UK and many other countries until 2021.
January 31, 1968	Australia	Nauru
March 12, 1968	United Kingdom	Mauritius	In personal union with the UK and many other countries until 1992.
September 6, 1968	United Kingdom	Swaziland	Restoration of independence after British protectorate, initial establishment around 1745. Name changed to Eswatini in 2018.
October 12, 1968	Spain	Equatorial Guinea
October 10, 1970	United Kingdom	Fiji	Restoration of independence after British colonial rule. Initial founding in 1871. In personal union with the UK and many other countries until 1987.
August 15, 1971	United Kingdom	Bahrain	Independence restored after British protectorate. Initial independence in 1783.
September 3, 1971	United Kingdom	Qatar	Independence restored after British protectorate. Initial independence in 1868.
December 2, 1971	United Kingdom	United Arab Emirates	Ras Al Khaimah initially not part of the union, joined in 1972.
December 16, 1971	Pakistan	Bangladesh	Unrecognized by Pakistan until 1974.
July 10, 1973	United Kingdom	Bahamas	In personal union with the UK and many other countries.
September 24, 1973	Portugal	Guinea-Bissau
February 7, 1974	United Kingdom	Grenada	In personal union with the UK and many other countries.
October 19, 1974	New Zealand	Niue	Independence restored after British and New Zealand rule. Initial establishment before 1887. Partially unrecognized. In personal union with the UK and many other countries. In free association with New Zealand.
June 25, 1975	Portugal	Mozambique
July 5, 1975	Portugal	Cape Verde
July 6, 1975	France	Comoros
July 12, 1975	Portugal	São Tomé and Príncipe
September 16, 1975	Australia	Papua New Guinea	In personal union with the UK and many other countries.
November 11, 1975	Portugal	Angola
November 25, 1975	Netherlands	Suriname
February 27, 1976	Spain	Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic	Partially unrecognized.
June 27, 1977	France	Djibouti
June 29, 1976	United Kingdom	Seychelles
July 7, 1978	United Kingdom	Solomon Islands	In personal union with the UK and many other countries.
October 1, 1978	United Kingdom	Tuvalu	In personal union with the UK and many other countries.
November 3, 1978	United Kingdom	Dominica
February 22, 1979	United Kingdom	Saint Lucia	In personal union with the UK and many other countries.
July 12, 1979	United Kingdom	Kiribati
October 27, 1979	United Kingdom	Saint Vincent and the Grenadines	In personal union with the UK and many other countries.
April 18, 1980	United Kingdom	Zimbabwe	Restoration of independence after a brief return to British rule after the Rhodesian Bush War. Initial independence in 1965 as Rhodesia.
July 7, 1980	United Kingdom and France	Vanuatu
September 21, 1981	United Kingdom	Belize	In personal union with the UK and many other countries.
November 1, 1981	United Kingdom	Antigua and Barbuda	In personal union with the UK and many other countries.
September 19, 1983	United Kingdom	Saint Kitts and Nevis	In personal union with the UK and many other countries.
November 15, 1983	Cyprus	Northern Cyprus	Largely unrecognized.
January 1, 1984	United Kingdom	Brunei	Independence restored after British protectorate. Initial establishment in 1368.
March 11, 1990	Soviet Union	Lithuania	Independence restored after Russian and Soviet rule. Initial establishment in 1236. Not official until the formal disestablishment of the Soviet Union.
March 21, 1990	South Africa	Namibia
May 4, 1990	Soviet Union	Latvia	Independence restored after Soviet rule. Initial establishment in 1918. Not official until the formal disestablishment of the Soviet Union.
December 22, 1990	United States	Marshall Islands	In free association with the United States
December 22, 1990	United States	Micronesia	In free association with the United States
April 9, 1991	Soviet Union	Georgia	Independence restored after Russian and Soviet rule. Initial establishment in 1008. Not official until the formal disestablishment of the Soviet Union.
May 18, 1991	Somalia	Somaliland	Largely unrecognized. Independence restored after unification with Somalia. Initial independence from the United Kingdom in 1960.
May 29, 1991	Ethiopia	Eritrea	Unrecognized by Ethiopia until 1993.
June 25, 1991	Yugoslavia	Croatia	Independence restored after Habsburg and Yugoslav rule. Initial independence in the 6th century.
June 25, 1991	Yugoslavia	Slovenia
August 20, 1991	Soviet Union	Estonia	Independence restored after Soviet rule. Initial establishment in 1918. Not official until the formal disestablishment of the Soviet Union.
August 24, 1991	Soviet Union	Ukraine	Independence restored after Soviet rule. Initial establishment in Ukraine. Not official until the formal disestablishment of the Soviet Union.
August 27, 1991	Soviet Union	Moldova	Independence restored after Soviet rule. Initial establishment in Moldavian DR. Not official until the formal disestablishment of the Soviet Union.
August 30, 1991	Soviet Union	Azerbaijan	Independence restored after Soviet rule. Initial establishment in Azerbaijan. Not official until the formal disestablishment of the Soviet Union.
August 31, 1991	Soviet Union	Kyrgyzstan	Not official until the formal disestablishment of the Soviet Union.
August 31, 1991	Soviet Union	Uzbekistan	Not official until the formal disestablishment of the Soviet Union.
September 9, 1991	Soviet Union	Tajikistan	Not official until the formal disestablishment of the Soviet Union.
September 17, 1991	Yugoslavia	North Macedonia	Name changed to North Macedonia in 2019.
October 27, 1991	Soviet Union	Turkmenistan	Not official until the formal disestablishment of the Soviet Union.
November 5, 1991	Soviet Union	Transnistria	Not official until the formal disestablishment of the Soviet Union. Largely unrecognized.
November 23, 1991	Soviet Union	Armenia	Independence restored after Russian and Soviet rule. Initial establishment in 331 BC. Not official until the formal disestablishment of the Soviet Union. Partially unrecognized.
December 10, 1991	Soviet Union	Belarus	Independence restored after Soviet rule. Initial establishment in Belarus. Not official until the formal disestablishment of the Soviet Union.
December 16, 1991	Soviet Union	Kazakhstan	Not official until the formal disestablishment of the Soviet Union. Initial establishment in 1465.
December 21, 1991	Soviet Union	South Ossetia	Not official until the formal disestablishment of the Soviet Union. Initially founded in the late 9th century. Largely unrecognized.
December 26, 1991	Soviet Union	Russia	Independence restored after Soviet rule. Initial establishment in 1547.

Post–Cold War era

Year	Previous entity	Newly independent entity	Event
March 6, 1992	Yugoslavia	Bosnia and Herzegovina	Restoration of independence after Ottoman, Austro-Hungarian, Yugoslav, and Croatian rule. Initial independence in 1154.
July 23, 1992	Georgia	Abkhazia	Restoration of independence after Georgian, Russian, and Soviet rule. Initially founded in 778. Largely unrecognized.
January 1, 1993	Czechoslovakia	Czech Republic	Dissolution of Czechoslovakia
January 1, 1993	Czechoslovakia	Slovakia	Dissolution of Czechoslovakia
July 5, 1994	Israel	Palestinian Authority	Created by the Oslo Accords, limited control over claimed territory. Partially unrecognized
October 1, 1994	United States	Palau	In free association with the United States
May 20, 2002	Indonesia	Timor-Leste	Independence restored after Indonesian occupation. Initial declaration of independence in 1975.
June 3, 2006	Serbia and Montenegro	Montenegro	Independence restored after Yugoslav union. Initial establishment in 1516
June 3, 2006	Serbia and Montenegro	Serbia	Independence restored after Yugoslav union. Initial establishment in 780
June 14, 2007	Israel and Palestinian Authority	Gaza Strip	Effectively operating as a separate state since Hamas takeover of government. Largely unrecognized.
February 17, 2008	Serbia	Kosovo	Kosova. Partially unrecognized.
August 20, 2010	Myanmar	Wa State	Largely unrecognized.
July 9, 2011	Sudan	South Sudan
March 17, 2016	Syria	Rojava	Largely unrecognized.
December 6, 2023	Myanmar	Chinland	Largely unrecognized.
April 1, 2024	Somalia	Puntland	Largely unrecognized.

Timeline of states established by means other than declaring independence

Year	Previous entity	Newly established entity	Event
Possibly before 97 BC	Yamatai and Other small Japanese states.	Japan	Origins of the Japanese state are largely unknown. Traditional foundation date by Emperor Jimmu in 660 BC. Emperor Sujin is considered to be the earliest possible non-legendary emperor of Japan, began his reign c. 97 BC.
c. 936	Petty Kingdoms in Denmark	Denmark	Likely date of Gorm the Old's accession as Denmark's first historically-confirmed king.
c. 970	Petty Kingdoms in Sweden	Sweden	Likely date of Eric the Victorious's accession as Sweden's first historically-confirmed king.
January 19, 1479	Crown of Castile and Crown of Aragon	Spain	Exactly when Spain was united is debated, the date given here is when Ferdinand II of Aragon, husband to Isabella I of Castile, ascended to the Aragonese throne and the Catholic Monarchs began to govern Spain as a de facto single realm. Legally, Castile and Aragon maintained separate institutions until the Nueva Planta Decrees issued between 1707 and 1716, and Navarre maintained separate institutions until 1841.
September 29, 1768	Gorkha Kingdom and 29 small Nepalese kingdoms.	Nepal	Prithvi Narayan Shah declares the establishment of the Kingdom of Nepal. Unification campaign continues to 1795 with the annexation of the Kingdom of Mustan.
March 15, 1776	Kingdoms of Phimai, Phitsanulok, and Swangburi	Thailand	Completion of the reunification of Siam by Taksin the Great. Initial establishment in 1238.
March 3, 1781	States of Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York (state), Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia	United States	Articles of Confederation come into effect, establishing a federal government and uniting the previously sovereign states into a confederation.
January 1, 1801	Kingdom of Great Britain and Kingdom of Ireland	United Kingdom	Acts of Union 1800 come into effect. Southern Ireland secedes in 1922.
October 26, 1820	North Haiti and South Haiti	Haiti	Haiti reunified after division following the death of Jean-Jacques Dessalines. Initial independence from France declared in 1804.
January 24, 1859	Moldavia and Principality of Wallachia	Romania	Ottoman vassal until 1877.
March 3, 1861	Kingdom of Sardinia, United Provinces of Central Italy and Kingdom of the Two Sicilies	Italy
October 29, 1923	Ottoman Empire	Turkey	Declaration of the Republic of Turkey, superseding the previous Ottoman state.
December 22, 1932	Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd and Idrisid Emirate of Asir	Saudi Arabia	Abolition of the dual monarchy of Nejd and Hejaz, which is superseded by the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
April 26, 1964	Tanganyika (1961–1964) and People's Republic of Zanzibar	Tanzania
July 2, 1976	North Vietnam and Republic of South Vietnam	Vietnam	Reunified following the Vietnam War. Initial establishment in 2879 BC.
May 22, 1990	North Yemen and South Yemen	Yemen	Yemeni unification following colonial-era division between Kingdom of Yemen and Aden Protectorate. Initial establishment in 110 BC.
October 3, 1990	East Germany and West Germany	Germany	Germany reunified after Cold War-era division. Unification of the German Empire in 1871.

See also

• Age of Revolution
• Decolonization
• Human history
• List of national independence days
• List of sovereign states by date of formation
• List of wars of independence
• Modern era
• National revival
• Timeline of national flags
• Wars of national liberation

References

Sources

• Dandamayev, Muhammad (2021). "Eastern Europe". A Companion to the Achaemenid Persian Empire: Volume II. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-119-07165-5.
• Gaube, Heinz (2008). "Iranian Cities". The City in the Islamic World: Volume 2. Brill. ISBN 978-90-47-44265-3.
• Katouzian, Homa (2013). Iran: Politics, History and Literature. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-63689-6.