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Second Era of Northern Domination

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See also: Vietnam under Chinese rule
Second Era of Northern Domination
Bắc thuộc lần thứ hai
北屬吝次𠄩
43–544
Map of the Liang dynasty in 502
Map of the Liang dynasty in 502
StatusCommanderies of the Eastern Han dynasty, Eastern Wu dynasty, Western Jin dynasty, Eastern Jin dynasty, Liu Song dynasty, Southern Qi dynasty, Liang dynasty
CapitalLong Biên
GovernmentMonarchy
Emperor 
• 43–57
Emperor Guangwu of Han (first)
• 229–252
Emperor Da of Eastern Wu
• 266–290
Emperor Wu of Jin
• 420–422
Emperor Wu of Liu Song
• 479–482
Emperor Gao of Southern Qi
• 502–544
Emperor Wu of Liang (last)
History 
43
• Jiaozhi under Eastern Wu
222
• Jin dynasty unified China
280
420
• Jiaozhi under Southern Qi
479
502
• Lý Bí's rebellion
544
Currencycash coins
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Trưng sisters
First Era of Northern Domination
Early Lý dynasty
Today part ofVietnam
China
Part of a series on the
History of Vietnam

Việt Nam toàn cảnh dư đồ (越南全境輿圖) là bản đồ Dại Nam chú giải bằng chữ Hán
Prehistoric
Paleolithic
Sơn Vi culture 20,000 BC–12,000 BC
Mesolithic
Hoabinhian 12,000 BC–10,000 BC
Neolithic
Bắc Sơn culture 10,000 BC–8,000 BC
Quỳnh Văn culture 8,000 BC–6,000 BC
Đa Bút culture 4,000 BC–3,000 BC
Bronze and Iron Ages
Phùng Nguyên culture 2,000 BC–1,500 BC
Đồng Đậu culture 1,500 BC–1,000 BC
Gò Mun culture 1,000–800 BC
Dong Son culture (1,000 BC–100 AD)
Sa Huỳnh culture (1,000 BC–200 AD)
Óc Eo culture (1–630 AD)
Ancient
Hồng Bàng dynasty 2879 BC–258 BC
Thục dynasty 257 BC–179 BC
Triệu dynasty 204 BC–111 BC
Dominated
1st Chinese domination 111 BC–40 AD
Trung sisters' rebellion 40–43
2nd Chinese domination 43–544
Early Lý dynasty544–602
3rd Chinese domination602–938
Dynastic
Ngô dynasty 939–965
Anarchy of the 12 Warlords 965–968
Đinh dynasty 968–980
Early Lê dynasty 980–1009
Later Lý dynasty 1009–1225
Trần dynasty 1225–1400
Hồ dynasty 1400–1407
4th Chinese domination 1407–1428
Later Lê dynasty 1428–1527
Mạc dynasty 1527–1592
Later Lê Restoration 1533–1789
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Nguyễn dynasty 1802–1945
Colonial
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North Vietnam
 1945–1976
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 1955–1975
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Non-Vietnamese history
Funan 68–627
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By topic
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The Second Era of Northern Domination refers to the second period of Chinese rule in Vietnamese history, from the 1st century to 6th century AD, during which present-day northern Vietnam (Jiaozhi) was governed by various Chinese dynasties. This period began when the Han dynasty reconquered Giao Chỉ (Jiaozhi) from the Trưng Sisters[1] and ended in 544 AD when Lý Bí revolted against the Liang dynasty and established the Early Lý dynasty.[2] This period lasted about 500 years.

History

[edit]

Eastern Han dynasty

[edit]

After suppressing the Trưng sisters in 43 AD, Ma Yuan continued his crackdown on the Lac Viet resistance and their society.[1] Lac lords who had joined the Trung sisters, who had submitted or surrendered to Ma Yuan would be spared, those who disobeyed were beheaded.[3] Direct imperial government now was imposed on the region for the first time,[4] and Ma Yuan was appointed as Jiaozhi's governor.[1] Some of 20,000 Chinese soldiers had settled in northern Vietnam to help rebuild the Han administration, living along with around 900,000 local people.[5][6] By the second and third century, local sites and artifacts often contain both Yue and Han styles, include Han-style tomb bricks and Dong Son artifacts such as bronze drums.[7] Chopsticks, paper, writing brushes, the concept of household, tomb,... were introduced into indigenous society (presumably included Yue speakers) during the Western Han or Eastern Han era.[8] Although the Yue had adjusted local cultures, the Han Chinese didn't force the locals to adopt Chinese customs. From the Han to the Tang era, Imperial Chinese had supported for the political alliances with the locally based Yue political elite, many of which were powerful and wealthy chieftains. The Chinese court often gave them official positions in order to extract profits from them.[9]

After governing Jiaozhi for 3 years, Ma Yuan was recalled in the year 45. During emperor Ming era, Rinan then Jiuzhen were governed by Li Shan who was well known for his benevolent rule.[1] Li Shan was then appointed governor of Jiuzhen,[1] while the governorship of Jiaozhi was succeeded by Zhang Hui.[10] Zhang Hui was later prosecuted for corruption and expelled. His property was confiscated and transferred to the state treasury.[10] Although the exact date is not clearly stated, it can be inferred from the historical source An Nam Chí Lược that Hu Gong succeeded Zhang Hui as governor of Jiaozhi, during the reign of emperor Zhang. However Hu Gong assumed the position of commandant of Jiaozhi (Vietnamese: Đô úy Giao Chỉ), instead of governor.[10] Historical source such as An Nam Chí Lược and Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư contain no records about Jiaozhi from the reign of emperor Zhang in 75 AD to the 130s AD under emperor Shun. However, based on Việt Nam: a history from earliest time to the present, in 100, Cham people in Xianglin (Tượng Lâm) county (near modern-day Huế) revolted against the Han rule due to high taxes. The Cham plundered and burned down the Han centers. The Han respond by putting down the rebellion, executed their leaders and granting Xianglin a two-year tax respite.[11]

In 136, Jiaozhi sitting governor Zhou Chang requested the emperor to classify Jiaozhi as a town, but the request was rejected. Zhou Chang was then appointed as Jiaozhou provincial governor (Vietnamese: Thứ sử Giao Châu), with authority over all its districts.[1][10] Historical source such as An Nam Chí Lược and Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư contain no further records about Zhou Chang in the year 136 as by the following year 137, Fan Yan was recorded as Jiaozhi governor. In the same year, Cham people led by Sri Mara (Vietnamese: Khu Liên) rebelled in Xianglin, and Fan Yan led an army of over ten thousands troops from both Jiaozhi and Jiuzhen to quell the uprising.[1] However, the army had low morale due to the long marching distance and Fan Yan was defeated by the rebels. Giả Xương, an official was appointed to Rinan to lead the army of other districts and provinces in the region to quell the uprising but failed and was besieged by the rebels for more than one year.[1] In 138, Zhang Qiao, who had just been appointed as Jiaozhou's governor along with the sitting Jiuzhen's governor Zhu Liang successfully made peace with the rebels in Xianglin.[12][10] History records don't clarify the terms of the peace agreements between the Han dynasty governors and the rebels, so it remains unclear what happened to Sri Mara after that event. While Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư mentions "Sri Mara" as the leader of the uprising, An Nam chí lược states that the rebellion was led by 'barbarians' and does not mention the leader name. Keith W. Taylor's The Birth of the Vietnam (1983) places Sri Mara's uprising in 192,[13] while no Vietnamese or Chinese historical sources record any uprising occurring in Xianglin or Jiaozhi in that year 192. As historical sources date the year Sri Mara declared himself King of Lâm Ấp and founded the kingdom to 192, this has led to the hypothesis that 'Sri Mara' may have been a noble title used by multiple leaders, due to the gap between 138 and 192.

In 144, Cham people again launched another two rebellions which provoked mutinies in the imperial army from Jiaozhi and Jiuzhen, then rebellion in Jiaozhi. Xia Fang,[12] the governor of Jiaozhi, according to Kiernan, "lured them to surrender" with "enticing words."[11] Xia Fang was subsequently appointed governor of Guiyang, while Lưu Tảo succeeded him as governor of Jiaozhi.[12]

In 157, local leader Chu Đạt in Jiuzhen rebelled and killed the Chinese magistrate of Jufeng who was notorious for his greed and cruelty,[10] then marched north with an army of four to five thousand. War broke out between Ni Shi (Vietnamese: Nghê Thức), the governor of Jiuzhen, and the rebels, during which Ni Shi was killed in action. The Han general of Jiuzhen, Wei Lang, gathered an army and defeated Chu Đạt, beheading 2,000 rebels.[14][15]

In 159 and 161, Indian merchants arrived Jiaozhi and paid tribute to the Han government.[16] Introduced by Indian merchants via sea, by late Han period, Buddhism quickly became the most predominant religion in Northern Vietnam,[17] whereas the Dâu Temple (circa. 2nd century AD) was the first Buddhist temple in Vietnam.[18]

In 160, rebellion broke out one more time in Jiuzhen. Xia Fang, who was now governor of Guiyang, was re-appointed as governor of Jiaozhi. Owing to his influence and benevolent governance during his previous tenure in Jiaozhi in the 140s, Xia Fang easily called the rebels for surrender.[12]

In 166, a Roman trade mission arrived Jiaozhi, bringing "tribute" (from the Chinese perspective) to the Han,[19] which "were likely bought from local markets" of Rinan and Jiaozhi.[20]

In 178, Wuhu people (烏滸) under Liang Long sparked a revolt against the Han in Hepu and Jiaozhi, which Jiaozhi's inspector Chou Yung failed to suppress. Liang Long spread his revolt to all northern Vietnam, Guangxi and central Vietnam as well, attracting all non-Chinese ethnic groups in Jiaozhi to join. In 181, the Han empire sent general Zhu Juan to deal with the revolt, while Nanhai inspector Kong Zhi also led thousands of residents to join Liang Long's revolt.[21][22] In June 181, Liang Long was captured and beheaded, and his rebellion was suppressed,[23] while the fate of Kong Zhi remains unrecorded. In recognition of his achievements for suppressing the revolt, the Han imperial court enfeoffed Zhu Juan as a Marquis of a Chief Village and summoned him to the imperial capital Luoyang to serve as a Counsellor Remonstrant.[22] Chou Yung remained as Jiaozhi's inspector.

In 183, the local army launched a coup, captured Chou Yung, and subsequently executed him. The military junta then sent an envoy to the Han dynasty to accuse Chou Yung of his crimes.[12] The accusation listed various corrupt governors of Jiaozhi who exploited the region’s resources — such as pearls, rhinoceros horns, ivory, tortoiseshell, rare spices, and valuable timber — to enrich themselves and then apply for reassignment to another post. The military junta also blamed the high taxes and the suppression of their right to file complaints, which they claimed led to the revolt — though they insisted that none of them had originally wanted an uprising.[12] Emperor Ling agreed with the accusation and assigned Jia Cong as Jiaozhi governor. Jia Cong then sent his people throughout the region to offer guidance and encouragement, persuading the rebels to return to their livelihoods. He also reduced taxes and executed corrupt officials, replacing them with benevolent ones. Peace was restored in Jiaozhi, and the residents praised Jia Cong for his just and effective governance. After governing Jiaozhi for 3 years, Jia Cong was recalled to the capital amid the political crisis under Emperor Ling, and was succeeded by Lý Tiến, a native of Jiaozhi.[12][22] Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư marked this event as the end of Eastern Han domination in Jiaozhi, which had lasted for 144 years (43-186).[12]

Three Kingdoms era

[edit]

In 187, Shi Xie (Vietnamese: Sĩ Nhiếp) was appointed governor of Jiaozhi amid the province's crisis during the final years of the Eastern Han dynasty.[24] When China plunged into civil war, Shi Xie ruled Jiaozhi as an independent warlord from 187 until his death in 226.[25] During that time, Shie Xie's younger brothers also held important positions in Jiao Province: Shi Yi (士壹), Shi Wei (士䵋) and Shi Wu (士武) were respectively the Administrators of Hepu (合浦), Jiuzhen (九真) and Nanhai (南海) commanderies in Jiao Province.[26] As being a remote province in southern China, Shi Xie's Jiao was not caught up in the chaos of the Han Empire during its last days. Shi Xie soon proved himself to be a great and benevolent governor, who was deeply respected and even referred to as a 'king' by all the residents. His commanderies also attract hundreds of scholars from the Han dynasty amid the on-going political crisis in the empire.[26]

During the Eastern Wu era, Shie Xie pledged allegiance to Sun Quan forces in 210 and later became a vassal of this empire. Shie Xie sent annual tribute to Sun Quan, including thousands of precious rare spices, silk, pearls, ivory and Jiaozhi's fruit to maintain good relations with Eastern Wu.[25] In recognition of Shi Xie's effective governance, Sun Quan appointed him as General of the Guards (衛將軍) and awarded him the title "Marquis of Longbian" (龍編侯).[25] Shi Xie died of illness in 226. In 227, Eastern Wu forces killed his son Shi Hui (士徽), ending the Shi rule of Jiaozhi.

Han style funerary house model found in Bỉm Sơn, Thanh Hóa. 1st-3rd century AD

When the Eastern Han dynasty split into the Three Kingdoms in 220, Jiaozhi was under the control of the state of Wu. In 226 Sun Quan divided Jiaozhi into two separated provinces, Chiao-chou (included northern Vietnam and small portion of Hepu) and Kuangchou.[27] The Wu regime was harsh. Turmoil plagued the southern commanderies by the mid third century. In 231, people in Jiuzhen revolted but was "pacified" by a Wu general.[28] In 248, Lâm Ấp forces invaded from the south, seized most of Rinan, and marched on into Jiuzhen, provoking major uprisings there and in Jiaozhi.[29] In Jiuzhen, a Lạc Việt woman named Triệu Ẩu (Lady Triệu) led a rebellion against the Wu in the same year, but was suppressed by Lu Yin.[30][31]

Jin-Wu war

[edit]
Jin-Wu war 264-272

In 263, Lü Xing (呂興), a prefecture in Jiaozhou, gained supports from local people and soldiers, murdered Wu administrators Sun Xu (孫諝) and Deng Xun (鄧荀), then sent envoys to Cao Wei requesting military assistance. Jiaozhi, Jiuzhen and Rinan were transferred to Wei. In February 266, Western Jin replaced Cao Wei, immediately sent Yang Chi to annex Jiaozhou with local supports. In 268, Wu sent two generals, Liu Chun and Xiu Ze to reconquer Jiaozhou, but were repelled by Jin armies.[32] In 270, Jin and Wu armies clashed in Hepu. The Wu general, Tao Huang contacted with Luong Ky, a local commander collaborating with the Jin and convinced him to side with the Wu, enabled the Wu army to recapture Jiaozhi's ports and main towns in 271. Fighting continued in the countryside until 280, when Jin destroyed Wu, reunifying China.[30] The war devastated the region as number of households in northern Vietnam fell from 64,700 in 140 AD to around 25,600 by the Western Jin dynasty period.[33][34]

Jin dynasty and Southern dynasties

[edit]
Li Lao drum, 4th century AD, Honolulu Museum of Art

In the early period of Jin dynasty, the imperial court favored the southern trade networks with prosperity kingdoms of Funan and Lâm Ấp. Along with this brief peacetime "boom" in the southern trade, Jiaozhi and Jiuzhen enjoyed some autonomy from China until the 320s.[30] In 312 rebels and imperial army fought each other with ferocity over Jiaozhi and Jiuzhen. Frustrated by the difficulty of trade, Lâm Ấp itself resorted from 323 to seaborne raids on northern ports in Jiaozhou.[30] Though defeated in 399, Lâm Ấp continued its raids on Jiaozhi and Jiuzhen for two decades.[35] A Chinese rebel army from Zhejiang briefly seized Jiaozhi's capital in 411.[35] In 432, Phạm Dương Mại II of Lâm Ấp sent an embassy to the court of Liu Song asking for the appointment of Prefect of Jiao, which was declined.[36]

During the Jin dynasty and Six dynasties period of China, the Li-Lao people extended their territories right along the south coast of modern Guangdong and Guangxi, in a swath of land to the east of the Red River Delta and south and west of the Pearl River Delta, occupied the overland roads between Guangzhou and Jiaozhou.[37] The people of Li-Lao country put anyone traveled through their territories in dangers.[38]

Rebellions broke out in Jiaozhou from 468 to 485 against the Southern dynasties, and in 506 and 515 under Liang dynasty.[35] In March 468 under the Liu Song dynasty, Jiaozhou governor Liu Mu died of illness. Lý Trường Nhân, a nobleman, along with his younger cousin Lý Thúc Hiến[39] launched a coup d'état against the Jiaozhou government, killed the Liu Song officials in Jiaozhou, seized control of the citadel then declared himself as the governor.[40] Awaring of the uprising in Jiaozhou, Emperor Ming of Song, in August of that year, appointed Liu Bo as governor of Jiaozhou, along with an army to retake Jiaozhou from Lý Trường Nhân. After landing in Jiaozhou, Liu Bo was quickly defeated by Lý Trường Nhân, and died shortly afterward.[40] In November of that year, Lý Trường Nhân sent an envoy to make peace with the Liu Song and requested the title of "Hành Châu sự" (Xingzhoushi), a position with less authority than that of the Governor of Jiaozhou. Emperor Ming approved with Trường Nhân's request, granting him the authority to govern Jiaozhou.[40] Lý Trường Nhân governed Jiaozhou until the final days of the Liu Song dynasty, during which he died around the year 479.

In 479, after the death of Lý Trường Nhân, Lý Thúc Hiến requested the Liu Song to be appointed as Trường Nhân's successor. The Liu Song rejected Thúc Hiến's request and appointed Shen huan, the governor of Nanhai Commandery, as the new governor of Jiaozhou, while Thúc Hiến was assigned to govern Wuping and Xinxing.[39] However, with strong support from the local population, Thúc Hiến deployed troops throughout the region, preventing Shen Huan from assuming office in Jiaozhou. As a result, Shen Huan was forced to remain in Yulin Commandery during the turbulent final days of the Liu Song dynasty, where he eventually died.[39] Also in the year 479, the Liu Song felt and the Southern Qi dynasty begins in southern China. In July, emperor Qi Gao Di granted permission for Lý Thúc Hiến to continue his rule over Jiaozhou as its state governor.[41][39] In 484 under emperor Wu of Southern Qi, Lý Thúc Hiến refused to pay tribute to the Southern Qi which angered the emperor and led him to prepare for an annexation campaign the following year.[39] In 485, emperor Wu appointed Liu Kai as Jiaozhou's governor and mobilized troops from the states of Nankang, Luling, and Shixing to launch a campaign against Thúc Hiến. Fearing a direct confrontation with Liu Kai’s advancing army toward Jiaozhou, Thúc Hiến sent an envoy from Tương Châu to the Southern Qi to request the withdrawal of troops.[39] During that trip, Thúc Hiến offered tribute consisting of 20 hats made of silver and peafowl feathers, but it was rejected by the emperor.[39] Thúc Hiến then surrendered to the Southern Qi dynasty, officially marking the end of nearly 20 years of Lý clan rule in Jiaozhou.[42]

After the surrender of Lý Thúc Hiến, Liu Kai started governing Jiaozhou from 485 to 490. In 490, Kai was succeeded by Fang Facheng, who was depicted by various historical sources as a "bookworm".[39] In the same year, a state official Fu Dengzhi launched a coup d'etat against Fang Facheng and captured him. Until November of the same year, Fang was replaced by Fu Dengzhi as the new governor. Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư doesn't clearly specify the exact dates of Fu Dengzhi’s governance in Jiaozhou after he assumed office, but it briefly mentions that Li Yuankai succeeded Fu Dengzhi before the collapse of the Southern Qi in 502.[39] When the Liang dynasty was founded in 502, Li Yuankai was still serving as the governor of Jiaozhou. Until 505, he rebelled against the emperor and was suppressed by Lý Tắc, a state official, then executed.[39] Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư doesn't clearly specify who succeeded Li Yuankai after his execution until 516. In 516, emperor Wu appointed Li Ce as Jiaozhou's governor. That same year, Li Ce suppressed the rebellion of Lý Tông Lão, a former subordinate of Li Yuankai, then beheaded him to bring to Jiankang as an offering to the emperor.[43] Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư doesn't clearly specify the exact dates of Li Ce’s governance in Jiaozhou after he assumed office, but it does mention that in 541, Hou Zi was serving as governor.[43] Hou Zi was notorious among Jiaozhou's people for his a cruelty.[43]

In 541, Lý Bôn, a leader of the Ly clan which had Sinitic ancestry, revolted against Hou Zi and the Liang.[43] In 544, he defeated the Liang and proclaimed himself Emperor of Nán Yuè with reign era Thiên-đức.[44] He named the new kingdom "Vạn Xuân" (萬春, "Eternal Spring"). Jiaozhou briefly became independence from the Chinese dynasties. In 545, Chen Baxian led the Liang army attack Jiaozhou, forced Lý Bôn fled west into the mountains above the Red River, where he was killed by Lao highlanders in 548.[45]

Culture

[edit]

"...In the two districts of Me Linh in Jiaozhi and Do Long in Jiuzhen, when an elder brother dies, a younger brother marries his widow; this has been going on for generations, thereby becoming an established custom, so district officials give in and allow it, not being able to stop it. In Rinan Prefecture, men and women go naked without shame. In short, it can be said that these people are on the same level as bugs."[46]

Xue Zong, Custom of the South (231)

Due to the political instability of Chinese civilization from 3rd to 6th century, much of the Vietnamese countryside was indirectly ruled, and indigenous Yue customs and relations between the sexes persisted.[47] Women played important roles in indigenous religious rites, including water rituals.[48] International trade through Maritime Silk Road from late AD 100s to 500s brought Dong Son bronze drums from northern Vietnam to far as eastern Indonesia, Papua and the Moluccas. Buddhists from India, known to the Chinese as Hu, had arrived in Vietnam in AD 100s. Buddhism flourished within the region under Shi Xie. In contrast to Confucianism, Buddhism had deep roots in the Vietnamese psyche.[49] Persian and Sogdian merchants also traveled to the Vietnamese coast;[50] the region was the home of Kang Senghui, a Sogdian Buddhist monk who translated Buddhist texts into Chinese.[51]

Uprisings

[edit]

Local rebellions were organized by:

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c d e f g h Ngô Sĩ Liên 1993, p. 22, Volume III, Peripheral records, "Kỷ Thuộc Đông Hán".
  2. ^ Ngô Sĩ Liên 1993, p. 36, Volume IV, Peripheral records, "Kỷ Nhà Tiền Lý: Tiền Lý Nam Đế".
  3. ^ Taylor 1983, p. 47.
  4. ^ Miksic & Yian 2016, p. 157.
  5. ^ Taylor 1983, p. 49.
  6. ^ Alves 2016, p. 280.
  7. ^ Kiernan 2019, p. 84.
  8. ^ Alves 2016, p. 282-286.
  9. ^ Li 2011, p. 46.
  10. ^ a b c d e f Lê Tắc 1335, p. 67, Volume VII.
  11. ^ a b Kiernan 2019, p. 85.
  12. ^ a b c d e f g h Ngô Sĩ Liên 1993, p. 23, Volume III, Peripheral records, "Kỷ Thuộc Đông Hán".
  13. ^ Taylor 1983, p. 69.
  14. ^ Taylor 1983, p. 64-66.
  15. ^ Loewe 1986, p. 316.
  16. ^ Li 2011, p. 48.
  17. ^ Kiernan 2019, p. 92-93.
  18. ^ Li 2011, p. 44.
  19. ^ Yu 1986, p. 470.
  20. ^ Kiernan 2019, p. 86.
  21. ^ Kiernan 2019, p. 87.
  22. ^ a b c Lê Tắc 1335, p. 68, Volume VII.
  23. ^ Taylor 1983, p. 67-68.
  24. ^ Taylor 1983, p. 70.
  25. ^ a b c Ngô Sĩ Liên 1993, p. 27, Volume III, Peripheral records, "Kỷ Sĩ Vương: Sĩ Vương".
  26. ^ a b Ngô Sĩ Liên 1993, p. 25, Volume III, Peripheral records, "Kỷ Sĩ Vương: Sĩ Vương".
  27. ^ Taylor 1983, p. 92.
  28. ^ Taylor 1983, p. 89.
  29. ^ Kiernan 2019, p. 97.
  30. ^ a b c d Kiernan 2019, p. 98.
  31. ^ Miksic & Yian 2016, p. 159.
  32. ^ Taylor 1983, p. 92-94.
  33. ^ Taylor 1983, p. 56.
  34. ^ Taylor 1983, p. 120.
  35. ^ a b c Kiernan 2019, p. 99.
  36. ^ Aymonier 1893, p. 7.
  37. ^ Churchman 2011, p. 67-68.
  38. ^ Churchman 2011, p. 71-74.
  39. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Ngô Sĩ Liên (1993), Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư, page 35, Peripheral Records vol. 4.
  40. ^ a b c Ngô Sĩ Liên (1993), Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư, page 34, Peripheral Records vol. 4.
  41. ^ Book of Qi, Volume II, page 3a and Volume 58, page 7a.
  42. ^ Book of Qi, Volume 58, page 7a.
  43. ^ a b c d Ngô Sĩ Liên (1993), Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư, page 36, Peripheral Records vol. 4.
  44. ^ Kiernan 2019, p. 102.
  45. ^ Kiernan 2019, p. 103.
  46. ^ Dutton 2012, p. 26–27.
  47. ^ Kiernan 2019, p. 92.
  48. ^ Kiernan 2019, p. 93.
  49. ^ Kiernan 2019, p. 94.
  50. ^ Beaujard 2019, p. 558.
  51. ^ Beaujard 2019, p. 511.

Bibliography

[edit]

Articles

[edit]
  • Alves, Mark J. (2016). "Identifying Early Sino-Vietnamese Vocabulary via Linguistic, Historical, Archaeological, and Ethnological Data". Bulletin of Chinese Linguistics. 9: 264–295. doi:10.1163/2405478X-00902007.
  • Lê, Thi Liên (2017). "Lung Khe and the Cultural Relationship between Northern and Southern Vietnam". Asian Review of World Histories. 5 (2): 53–69. doi:10.1163/22879811-12340005 – via Brill.
  • Masanari, Nishimura (2005). "Settlement patterns on the Red River plain from the late prehistoric period to the 10th century AD". Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association. 25: 99–107. doi:10.7152/bippa.v25i0.11920 (inactive 12 July 2025).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 (link)
  • Noriko, Nishino (2017). "An Introduction to Dr. Nishimura Masanari's Research on the Lung Khe Citadel". Asian Review of World Histories. 5 (2): 11–27. doi:10.1163/22879811-12340003 – via Brill.
  • Taylor, K. (2017). "What Lies Behind the Earliest Story of Buddhism in Ancient Vietnam?". The Journal of Asian Studies. 77 (1): 107–122. doi:10.1017/S0021911817000985 – via Cambridge University Press.

Books

[edit]
  • Ngô Sĩ Liên (1993). Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư (PDF) (in Vietnamese) (Nội các quan bản ed.). Hanoi: Social Science Publishing House. Retrieved 2025-06-20.
  • Lê Tắc (1335). An Nam chí lược (PDF) (in Vietnamese). Huế university: Vietnamese Historical Documents Translation Committee. Retrieved 2025-07-08.
  • Aymonier, Etienne (1893). The History of Tchampa (the Cyamba of Marco Polo, Now Annam Or Cochin-China). Oriental University Institute.
  • Beaujard, Philippe (2019), The Worlds of the Indian Ocean: Volume 1, From the Fourth Millennium BCE to the Sixth Century CE: A Global History, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-1-10864-332-0
  • Churchman, Michael (2011), ""The People in Between": The Li and the Lao from the Han to the Sui", in Li, Tana; Anderson, James A. (eds.), The Tongking Gulf Through History, Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press, pp. 67–86, ISBN 978-0-812-20502-2
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  • Loewe, Michael (1986), "The conduct of government and the issues at stake (A.D. 57-167)", in Twitchett, Denis C.; Fairbank, John King (eds.), The Cambridge History of China: Volume 1, The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC-AD 220, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 291–316
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Further reading

[edit]
Preceded by Dynasty of Vietnam
43–544 		Succeeded by
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