Saturn V

This article is about the rocket. For Saturn's moon, see Rhea (moon).

"Saturn 5" redirects here. For the Inspiral Carpets song, see Devil Hopping.

Saturn V

The launch of the Apollo 11 mission on Saturn V SA-506, July 16, 1969
Function	Launch vehicle of Apollo program and Skylab
Manufacturer	Boeing (S-IC) North American (S-II) Douglas (S-IVB)
Country of origin	United States
Project cost	US$6.417 billion (equivalent to $33.6 billion in 2023)
Cost per launch	US$185 million (equivalent to $969 million in 2023)
Size
Height	111 m (363 ft)
Diameter	10 m (33 ft)
Mass	2,822,171 to 2,965,241 kg (6,221,823 to 6,537,238 lb)
Stages	3
Capacity
Payload to LEO
Altitude	185 km (115 mi)
Mass	140,000 kilograms (310,000 lb)
Payload to TLI
Mass	43,500 kg (95,900 lb)
Associated rockets
Family	Saturn
Derivative work	Saturn INT-21
Comparable	Historic: N1 (never operational) Energia Falcon Heavy Long March 9 SLS Starship
Launch history
Status	Retired
Launch sites	Kennedy Space Center, LC-39
Total launches	13
Success(es)	12
Partial failure(s)	1 (Apollo 6)
First flight	November 9, 1967 (AS-501 Apollo 4)
Last flight	May 14, 1973 (AS-513 Skylab)
First stage – S-IC
Height	42 m (138 ft)
Diameter	10 m (33 ft)
Empty mass	137,000 kg (303,000 lb)
Gross mass	2,214,000 kg (4,881,000 lb)
Powered by	5 × F-1
Maximum thrust	33,000 kN (7,500,000 lbf) at sea level
Specific impulse	260 s (2.5 km/s) (minimum) at sea level
Burn time	150 seconds
Propellant	LOX / RP-1
Second stage – S-II
Height	24.87 m (81 ft 7 in)
Diameter	10 m (33 ft)
Empty mass	43,000 kg (95,000 lb)
Gross mass	470,000 kg (1,037,000 lb)
Powered by	5 × J-2
Maximum thrust	4,400 kN (1,000,000 lbf) vacuum
Specific impulse	424 s (4.16 km/s) (427 s (4.19 km/s) at 5:1 mixture ratio.)
Burn time	395 seconds
Propellant	LOX / LH2
Third stage – S-IVB
Height	17.86 m (58 ft 7 in)
Diameter	6.60 m (21 ft 8 in)
Empty mass	15,200 kg (33,600 lb)
Gross mass	120,500 kg (265,600 lb)
Powered by	1 × J-2
Maximum thrust	1,000 kN (225,000 lbf) vacuum
Specific impulse	424 s (4.16 km/s) (427 s (4.19 km/s) at 5:1 mixture ratio.)
Burn time	165 + 312 seconds (2 burns)
Propellant	LOX / LH2

The Saturn V is a retired American super heavy-lift launch vehicle developed by NASA under the Apollo program for human exploration of the Moon. The rocket was human-rated, had three stages, and was powered by liquid fuel. Flown from 1967 to 1973, it was used for nine crewed flights to the Moon, and to launch Skylab, the first American space station.

As of 2024, the Saturn V remains the only launch vehicle to have carried humans beyond low Earth orbit (LEO). The Saturn V holds the record for the largest payload capacity to low Earth orbit, 310,000 lb (140,000 kg), which included unburned propellant needed to send the Apollo command and service module and Lunar Module to the Moon.

The largest production model of the Saturn family of rockets, the Saturn V was designed under the direction of Wernher von Braun at the Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama; the lead contractors for construction of the rocket were Boeing, North American Aviation, Douglas Aircraft Company, and IBM. Fifteen flight-capable vehicles were built, not counting three used for ground testing. A total of thirteen missions were launched from Kennedy Space Center, nine of which carried 24 astronauts to the Moon from Apollo 8 (December 1968) to Apollo 17 (December 1972).

History

See also: Space Race

Background

In September 1945, German rocket technologist Wernher von Braun was brought, under contract, to the United States during Operation Paperclip. This program, authorized by President Truman, brought in over 1,600 German rocket engineers and technicians to the United States. Von Braun, who had helped create the German V-2 rocket, was assigned to the United States Army Ordnance Corps at Fort Strong, Massachusetts then at Fort Bliss, Texas. During his time at Fort Bliss, von Braun and his team weren't given much to work with. The first couple of months, the Germans were only given "primitive or aged" wooden workshops. They were also not allowed to leave Fort Bliss without a military escort either. In 1950, Von Braun remarked to Daniel Lang, a reporter at The New Yorker, "At Peenemünde we had been coddled, here you were counting pennies." Though, he wrote books and articles in popular magazines, such as Collier's.

This approach changed in 1957, when the Soviets launched Sputnik 1 atop an R-7 ICBM, which could carry a thermonuclear warhead to the U.S. The Army and government began putting more effort towards sending Americans into space before the Soviets. They turned to von Braun's team, who had created the Jupiter series of rockets. The Juno I rocket launched the first American satellite in January 1958. Von Braun considered the Jupiter series of rockets to be a prototype of the upcoming Saturn series of rockets, and referred to it as "an infant Saturn".

Design process

Main article: Saturn (rocket family)

Saturn V testing vehicle and flight vehicle configurations

Von Braun with the F-1 engines of the Saturn V first stage at the U.S. Space and Rocket Center.

Named after the sixth planet from the Sun because the design of the various Saturn rockets evolved from the earlier Jupiter vehicles, which were named after the fifth planet from the Sun. Between 1960 and 1962, the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) designed a series of Saturn rockets that could be deployed for Earth orbit and lunar missions. NASA planned to use a Saturn vehicle as part of the Earth orbit rendezvous (EOR) method for a lunar mission. Development on the Saturn C-3 rocket was just beginning, when the MSFC planned an even bigger rocket, the Saturn C-4, which would use four F-1 engines in its first stage and five J-2 engines in its second stage.

On January 25, 1962, NASA gave its approval to build the C-5. The three-stage rocket would consist of the S-IC first stage, with five F-1 engines; the S-II second stage, with five J-2 engines; and the S-IVB third stage, with a single J-2 engine. The C-5 would undergo component testing even before the first model was constructed. The S-IVB third stage would be used as the second stage for the C-1B, which would serve both to demonstrate proof of concept and feasibility for the C-5, but would also provide flight data critical to the development of the C-5. Rather than undergoing testing for each major component, the C-5 would be tested in an "all-up" fashion, meaning that the first test flight of the rocket would include complete versions of all three stages. By testing all components at once, far fewer test flights would be required before a crewed launch. The C-5 was confirmed as NASA's choice for the Apollo program in mid 1962, and was named the Saturn V in February 1963. Also the same month, the "C" designations were dropped; the C-1 became the Saturn I and C-1B became Saturn IB. By November, 1962, NASA had switched and confirmed a Lunar orbit rendezvous (LOR) method for a lunar mission. The outside contractors that were chosen for the construction were: Boeing (S-IC), North American Aviation (S-II), Douglas Aircraft (S-IVB), and IBM (instrument unit).

Selection for Apollo lunar landing

See also: Project Apollo § Choosing a mission mode

Early in the planning process, NASA considered three methods for the Moon mission: Earth orbit rendezvous (EOR), direct ascent, and lunar orbit rendezvous (LOR). A direct ascent configuration would require an extremely large rocket to send a three-man spacecraft to land directly on the lunar surface with enough fuel to fly back to Earth. NASA proposed the Nova for this method. An EOR would launch the direct-landing spacecraft in two smaller parts which would combine in Earth orbit. A LOR mission would involve a single rocket launching two spacecraft: a mother ship, and a smaller, two-man landing module which would rendezvous back with the main spacecraft in lunar orbit. The lander would be discarded and the mother ship would return home.

Originally, in the early 1960s, when the Saturn project was transferred to NASA, direct ascent was preferred method. Along with being NASA's preferred method during this, the Air Force had been in development of a lunar mission named Lunex since 1958. The Lunex Project would use the direct ascent method. The Space Systems Division estimated that a mission to the moon using direct ascent could be done by 1967 at an estimated cost of $7.5 billion (equivalent to $58.6 billion in 2023). At the time NASA dismissed both of the rendezvous methods as "dangerous and impractical." Von Braun's team had shown an interest in using the EOR method as early as 1958. Von Braun augured for using EOR saying smaller vehicles could be used. Around the same time, Thomas Dolan and his team from the Vought Astronautics Division became the first to study the LOR method. Although his team presented their ideas to NASA, nothing came from his proposal.

In 1960, several NASA officials, including Langley Research Center engineer John Houbolt, argued that a lunar orbit rendezvous provided the simplest landing on the Moon with the most cost–efficient launch vehicle, and the best chance to accomplish the lunar landing within the decade. Throughout 1961, Houbolt and his team at Langley went around attempting to convince other research teams to pursuit LOR. During this, Houbolt caught the attention of James Chamberlin, the chief of the Engineering Division. Although in charge of a study which would later become Project Gemini, he proposed using a two-man spacecraft using LOR to send a one-man lunar lander to the surface of the moon. Although Chamberlin's plan never went anywhere, it did mark a shift towards using LOR. Houbolt also managed to convince NASA Administrator George Low. In June 1962, Von Braun would announce LOR would be MSFC's choice. As more NASA officials became convinced, LOR was then officially selected as the mission configuration for the Apollo program and announced by NASA administrator James E. Webb on November 7, 1962.

Development

Main articles: Saturn V dynamic test vehicle § Development of the test article, and SA-500F

A boilerplate Apollo spacecraft, BP-027 were used for all configurations of dynamic testing. The boilerplate took the place of actual flight hardware. Boilerplate size, shape, mass and center of gravity were the same, but it was not necessary for the entire Apollo spacecraft to be complete to commence dynamic testing. The boilerplate was outfitted with instrumentation to record data for engineering study and evaluation. BP-27 was accepted at the Marshall Space Flight Center in late September 1964.

The third stage, S-IVB-D arrived at MSFC before any other Saturn V stages because it needed to be used for dynamic testing of the Saturn IB rocket. The third stage arrived at MSFC on January 4, 1965. Next, the instrument unit, S-IU-200D/500D, was built. Unlike the other major components of the rocket, the instrument unit was built in Huntsville, Alabama, where the MSFC is located. The ring was completed in January 1965 and electronic components from IBM installed by February 1. Like the third stage, it arrived before the other stages because it was needed for dynamic testing in Saturn IB first.

The first stage of the Saturn V rocket, S-IC-D, set out on the maiden voyage of NASA barge Poseidon to Marshall Space Flight Center on October 6, 1965, and arrived at MSFC October 13. While the first stage was on its way, dynamic testing for the Saturn V program, using the test rocket SA-500D, began on October 8. The first stage was lifted into place in the dynamic test stand January 13, 1966.

The second stage of SA-500D had a complex history. Originally, NASA wanted to use the S-II-D stage for its dynamic testing. However, in the spring of 1965, NASA canceled the production of the S-II-D stage and instead opted to use the S-II-S stage for its dynamic tests. The S-II-S stage, which North American Aviation's Space and Information Systems Division (S&ID) at Seal Beach had completed by January 31, 1965, was re-designated as S-II-S/D to be used for dynamic testing. S-II-S/D would rupture and be destroyed on a loading test on September 29, 1965 at Seal Beach. It was discovered that the test was exercising a considerable margin above the structural integrity required for flight, approximately 144 percent of its load limit. Because of this, NASA was forced to substitute the S-II-T stage for testing. In early 1966, the all-systems test S-II-T was re-designated S-II-T/D, so that it might be used for dynamic testing as well as engine firing. On May 28, 1966, S-II-T/D was undergoing a pressure test to find a hydrogen leak, but the hydrogen pressure sensors and switches had been disconnected unbeknownst to the second-shift crew. As a result, the crew, believing that a valve was leaking liquid hydrogen, started blocking the valves. This caused the liquid hydrogen tank to over pressurize and explode, injuring five men and hospitalizing two others.

After the S-II-T/D destruction, a third article was assigned to dynamic test duties. Facilities checkout article S-II-F became the dynamic test article designated S-II-F/D arriving to the MSFC on November 10, 1966. The S-II-F stage was at the Kennedy Space Center being used as a non-flight version of the stage, being shipped from Seal Beach, California on February 20, 1966, to Kennedy Space Center where it arrived March 4.

Testing

Main article: Saturn V dynamic test vehicle § Dynamic testing

Dynamic testing examined "the vehicle's response to lateral, longitudinal, and torsional excitation, simulating those that would be experienced in flight. The vehicle was "mounted on a hydrodynamic support system made up of four hydraulic/pneumatic pedestals to permit a simulated unrestrained reaction." Engineers tested vibrations in one plane at a time with different amounts of ballast simulating "fuel load at critical time points in the flight trajectory."

In Configuration One, SA-500D was fully assembled inside the dynamic test facility.

Dynamic tests came in three configurations, one for each phase of Saturn V-powered flight. Configuration I focused on testing the entire stack on its bending and vibration characteristics, as if the vehicle had just been launched. Configuration II exercised the stack as if the first stage had jettisoned and the second stage were firing, and configuration III tested just the third stage and Apollo spacecraft. Tests began with Configuration III in the Saturn IB dynamic test facility. Configuration III testing took place in late 1965. Configuration I testing followed in the Saturn V dynamic test stand, then Configuration II in the same place. With all the components at MSFC as of November 10, 1966, the second stage was stacked atop the first inside the dynamic test stand on November 23. The third stage was added to the stack November 30, and the Instrument Unit and boilerplate Apollo were installed in December. The rocket was stacked and ready for "Configuration One" testing.

Configuration One Testing finished on March 11. Testing produced "several minor irregularities indicating the need for possible engineering changes" Configuration Two testing followed, in which the first stage was removed from the stack to simulate conditions after the first stage had jettisoned. On August 3, 1967, MSFC announced the successful completion of the dynamic test program, thereby declaring dynamics and structures of the Saturn V ready for its first launch later in the year. The dynamic testing resulted in "several slight modifications" to the final flight vehicle.

Launch history

See also: List of Apollo missions

All Saturn V launches, 1967–1973

Serial number	Mission	Launch date	Notes	Refs
SA-500F	Facilities integration		Used as a facility verification vehicle. The first stage was scrapped. The second stage was converted to S-II-F/D and was used for dynamic testing. It was later moved to the U.S. Space & Rocket Center where it currently sits. The third stage was modified into a Skylab dynamic test article before it was scraped.
SA-500D	Dynamic testing		Used to evaluate the vehicle's response to vibrations. On display at the U.S. Space & Rocket Center, Huntsville, Alabama.
S-IC-T	All Systems Test		First stage used for static firing tests of S-IC stage and of F-1 engines at Marshall Space Flight Center. On display at Kennedy Space Center.
SA-501	Apollo 4	November 9, 1967 12:00:01 UTC	First uncrewed, all-up test flight.
SA-502	Apollo 6	April 4, 1968 12:00:01 UTC	Second uncrewed test flight; J-2 engine problems caused early shutdown of two engines in the second stage, and prevented third stage restart.
SA-503	Apollo 8	December 21, 1968 12:51:00 UTC	First crewed flight; first trans-lunar injection of Apollo command and service module.
SA-504	Apollo 9	March 3, 1969 16:00:00 UTC	Crewed low Earth orbit test of complete Apollo spacecraft with the Lunar Module (LM).
SA-505	Apollo 10	May 18, 1969 16:49:00 UTC	Second crewed trans-lunar injection of complete Apollo spacecraft with LM; Only Saturn V launched from Pad 39B.
SA-506	Apollo 11	July 16, 1969 13:32:00 UTC	First crewed lunar landing, at Sea of Tranquility.
SA-507	Apollo 12	November 14, 1969 16:22:00 UTC	Vehicle was struck twice by lightning shortly after liftoff, but did not suffer serious damage. Made second crewed lunar landing, near Surveyor 3 at Ocean of Storms
SA-508	Apollo 13	April 11, 1970 19:13:00 UTC	Severe pogo oscillations in second stage caused early center engine shutdown; guidance compensated by burning remaining engines longer. Lunar landing mission was aborted by service module failure.
SA-509	Apollo 14	January 31, 1971 21:03:02 UTC	Third crewed lunar landing, near Fra Mauro, Apollo 13's intended landing site.
SA-510	Apollo 15	July 26, 1971 13:34:00 UTC	Fourth crewed lunar landing, at Hadley–Apennine. First extended Apollo mission, carrying lunar orbital Scientific Instrument Module and Lunar Roving Vehicle.
SA-511	Apollo 16	April 16, 1972 17:54:00 UTC	Fifth crewed lunar landing, at Descartes Highlands.
SA-512	Apollo 17	December 7, 1972 05:33:00 UTC	Only night launch. Sixth and final crewed lunar landing, at Taurus–Littrow.
SA-513	Skylab 1	May 14, 1973 17:30:00 UTC	Uncrewed launch of the Skylab orbital workshop, which replaced the third stage, S-IVB-513, on display at Johnson Space Center. Originally designated for canceled Apollo 18.
SA-514	Unused		Originally designated for canceled Apollo 19. Never used. First stage on display at Johnson Space Center. Second and third stage on display at Kennedy Space Center.
SA-515	Unused		Originally designated for canceled Apollo 20 and later it was used as a backup Skylab launch vehicle. Never used. The first stage was on display at Michoud Assembly Facility, until June 2016 then was moved to the INFINITY Science Center in Mississippi for preservation. The second stage is on display at Johnson Space Center. The third stage was converted to a backup Skylab orbital workshop and is on display at the National Air and Space Museum.

Specifications

Saturn V diagram

The size and payload capacity of the Saturn V dwarfed those of all other previous rockets successfully flown at that time. With the Apollo spacecraft on top, it stood 363 feet (111 m) tall, and, ignoring the fins, was 33 feet (10 m) in diameter at its base. Fully fueled, the Saturn V weighed from 2,822,171 to 2,965,241 kg (6,221,823 to 6,537,238 lb), a low Earth orbit (LEO) payload capacity of about 140,000 kilograms (310,000 lb), and could send about 43,500 kilograms (95,900 lb) to the Moon.

The Saturn V was principally designed by the Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama. The rocket used the powerful F-1 and J-2 rocket engines; during testing at Stennis Space Center, the force developed by the engines shattered the windows of nearby houses. Designers decided early on to attempt to use as much technology from the Saturn I program as possible for the Saturn V. Consequently, the S-IVB third stage of the Saturn V was based on the S-IVB second stage of the Saturn I. The Saturn V was primarily constructed of aluminum. It was also made of titanium, polyurethane, cork and asbestos. Blueprints and other plans of the rocket are available on microfilm at the Marshall Space Flight Center.

The Saturn V consisted of three stages—the S-IC first stage, S-II second stage, S-IVB third stage, and the instrument unit. All three stages used liquid oxygen (LOX) as the oxidizer. The first stage used RP-1 for fuel, while the second and third stages used liquid hydrogen (LH2). LH2 has a higher specific energy (energy per unit mass) than RP-1, which makes it more suitable for higher-energy orbits, such as the trans-lunar injection required for Apollo missions. Conversely, RP-1 offers higher energy density (energy per unit volume) and higher thrust than LH2, which makes it more suitable for reducing aerodynamic drag and gravity losses in the early stages of launch. If the first stage had used LH2, the volume required would have been greater, which would have been aerodynamically infeasible at the time. The second and third stages also used small solid-propellant ullage motors that helped to separate the stages during the launch, and to ensure that the liquid propellants were in a proper position to be drawn into the pumps.

S-IC first stage

Main article: S-IC

The first stage of Apollo 8's Saturn V being erected in the VAB on February 1, 1968. Engine fairings and fins not yet installed.

The S-IC was built by the Boeing Company at the Michoud Assembly Facility, New Orleans and the Mississippi Test Facility (now known as the Stennis Space Center), Hancock County, Mississippi. Most of its mass at launch was propellant: RP-1 fuel with liquid oxygen as the oxidizer. The stage was 138 feet (42 m) tall and 10 metres (33 ft) in diameter. It provided 7,500,000 lbf (33,000 kN) of thrust at sea level. The S-IC stage had a dry mass of about 303,000 pounds (137,000 kilograms); when fully fueled at launch, it had a total mass of 4,881,000 pounds (2,214,000 kilograms). The S-IC was powered by five Rocketdyne F-1 engines arrayed in a quincunx. The center engine was held in a fixed position, while the four outer engines could be hydraulically turned with gimbals to steer the rocket. The S-IC had a burn time of approximately 150 seconds.

Structure

The S-IC structure design reflects the requirements of F-1 engines, propellants, control, instrumentation and interfacing systems. The stage is primarily built of Aluminum alloy, specifically 7075 and 2219 alloys. The major components are the forward skirt, oxidizer tank, intertank section, fuel tank, and thrust structure. The aft end of the forward skirt is attached to the oxidizer (liquid oxygen) tank and the forward end interfaces with the S-II stage The skin panels, fabricated from 7075-T6 aluminum, are stiffened and strengthened by ring frames and stringers.

The 1,310,000 liters (345,000 U.S. gal) liquid oxygen tank is the structural link between the forward skirt and the intertank section. Ring baffles attached to the skin stiffeners stabilize the tank wall and serve to reduce liquid oxygen sloshing. The tank is made of 2219 aluminum alloy and is a cylinder with ellipsoidal upper and lower bulkheads. The skin thickness is decreased in eight steps from 0.65 centimetres (0.254 in) at the aft section to 0.48 centimetres (0.190 in) at the forward section. The intertank structure helps provides structural continuity between the liquid oxygen and fuel tanks. The skin panels and ring frames are fabricated from 7075 aluminum.

The 820,000 liters (216,000 U.S. gal) fuel tank provides the structural link between the thrust and intertank structures. It is cylindrical with ellipsoidal upper and lower bulkheads. Anti-slosh ring baffles are located on the inside wall of the tank and anti-vortex cruciform baffles are located in the lower bulkhead area. Five liquid oxygen ducts run from the liquid oxygen tank, through the RP-1 tank, and terminate at the F-1 engines. The 2219 aluminum skin thickness is decreased in four steps from 0.49 centimetres (0.193 in) at the aft section to 0.43 centimetres (0.170 in) at the forward section.

Cutaway diagram of the S-IC stage.

The thrust structure assembly redistributes the loads of the five F-1 engines into the periphery of the fuel tank. It also provides support for the engine accessories, base heat shield, engine fairings and fins, propellant lines, retrorockets, and environmental control ducts. The lower thrust ring has four holddown points which support the fully loaded rocket and also, as necessary, restrain the vehicle from lifting off at full F-1 engine thrust. The skin segments are fabricated from 7075 aluminum alloy.

Electrical and instrumentation systems

The electrical power system of the S-IC stage is divided into three basic subsystems: an operational power subsystem, a measurement power subsystem, and a visual instrumentation power subsystem. On board power is supplied by five 28-volt batteries, one each for the operation and measurement power systems. The operational power system battery supplies power to operational loads such as valve controls, purge and venting systems, pressurization systems, and sequencing and flight control. The measurement power system battery supplies power to measurements loads such as telemetry systems, transducers, multiplexers, and transmitters. Both batteries supply power to their loads through a common main power distributor but each system is completely isolated from the other. In the visual instrumentation system, two batteries provide power for the liquid oxygen tank strobe lights. The third battery energizes the control circuits, camera motors, and thrusters of the film camera portion of the visual instrumentation system.

The instrumentation system monitors functional operations of stage systems and provides signals for vehicle tracking during the S-IC burn. Prior to liftoff, measurements are telemetered by coaxial cable to ground support equipment. During flight, data is transmitted to ground stations over radio frequency links. The offset doppler (ODOP) system uses the doppler principle to provide vehicle position and acceleration data during flight.

S-II second stage

Main article: S-II

An S-II stage hoisted onto the A-2 test stand at the Mississippi Test Facility.

The S-II was built by North American Aviation at Seal Beach, California. Using liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen, it had five Rocketdyne J-2 engines in a similar arrangement to the S-IC, and also used the four outer engines for control. The S-II was 24.87 m (81 ft 7 in) tall with a diameter of 10 metres (33 ft), identical to the S-IC. The S-II had a dry mass of about 43,000 kilograms (95,000 lb); when fully fueled, it weighed 470,000 kilograms (1,037,000 lb). The second stage accelerated the Saturn V through the upper atmosphere with 4,400 kilonewtons (1,000,000 lbf) of thrust in a vacuum. The S-II had a burn time of 395 seconds. When loaded with fuel, more than 90 percent of the mass of the stage was propellant Like the S-IC, the S-II was transported from its manufacturing plant to Cape Kennedy by sea.

Structure

The S-lI stage consists of a body shell structure (forward and aft skirts and interstage), a propellant tank structure (liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen tanks), and a thrust structure. The body shell structure consists of the forward skirt, aft skirt, and interstage. The three are of the same basic design except that the aft skirt and interstage are of generally heavier construction because of higher structural loads placed on them. Each unit is a cylindrical shell of semi-monocoque construction, built of 7075 aluminum alloy material, stiffened by external hat-section stringers and stabilized internally by circumferential ring frames. The forward skirt has a basic skin thickness of 0.10 centimetres (0.040 in), while the aft skirt and interstage both have basic skin thicknesses of 0.18 centimetres (0.071 in).

The thrust structure, like the body shell structure, is of semi-monocoque construction but in the form of a truncated cone increasing in size from approximately 5.5 metres (18 ft) to the 10 metres (33 ft) in diameter. It is stiffened by circumferential ring frames and hat-section stringers like the body shell structure. Four pairs of thrust longerons (two at each outboard engine location) and a center engine support beam distribute the thrust loads of the J-2 engines. The shell structure is of 7075 aluminum alloy. A fiberglass honeycomb heat shield, supported from the lower portion of the thrust structure, protects the stage base area from excessive temperatures.

The liquid hydrogen tank consists of a long cylinder with a concave modified ellipsoidal bulkhead forward and a convex modified ellipsoidal bulkhead aft. The aft bulkhead is also used by the liquid oxygen tank. The liquid hydrogen tank wall is composed of six cylindrical sections. Wall sections and bulkheads are all fabricated from 2014 aluminum alloy and are joined together by fusion welding. The forward bulkhead has a 11 metres (36 ft) diameter wide access manhole built into its center. The common bulkhead is an adhesive-bonded sandwich assembly employing facing sheets of 2014 aluminum alloy and fiberglass/phenolic honeycomb core to prevent heat transfer and retain the cryogenic properties of the two fluids to which it is exposed.

Cutaway diagram of the S-II stage.

The liquid oxygen tank consists of ellipsoidal fore and aft halves. The tank is fitted with three ring-type slosh baffles to control propellant sloshing and minimize surface disturbances and cruciform baffles to prevent the generation of vortices at the tank outlet ducts and to minimize residuals. A six-port sump assembly located at the lowest point of the tank provides a fill and drain opening and openings for five engine feed lines.

Electrical and instrumentation systems

The S-II electrical system consists of the electrical power and electrical control subsystems. The electrical power system provides the stage with the electrical power source and distribution. The electrical power system consists of six DC bus systems and a ground supplied AC bus system. In flight, the electrical power system busses are energized by four zinc-silver oxide batteries. The electrical control system interfaces with the instrument unit (IU) to accomplish the mission requirements of the stage. The Launch Vehicle Digital Computer (LVDC) in the IU controls in-flight sequencing of stage functions through the stage switch selector. The stage switch selector can provide up to 112 individual outputs in response to the appropriate commands. These outputs are routed through the stage electrical sequence controller or the separation controller to accomplish the directed operation.

The S-II instrumentation system consists of both operational and R&D measurement and telemetry systems. The measurement system monitors and measures conditions on the stage while the telemetry system transmits this information to ground stations. The measurement system consists of transducers, signal conditioners, and distribution equipment necessary to provide the required measurement ranges and to present suitably scaled signals to the telemetry system. The measurement system monitors numerous stage conditions and characteristics. This data is processed and conditioned into a form acceptable to the telemetry systems. The telemetry system accepts the signals produced by the measuring portion of the instrumentation system and transmits them to the ground stations. Telemetry equipment includes signal multiplexers, subcarrier oscillators, amplifiers, modulators, transmitters, RF power amplifiers, RF multiplexers and an omni-directional system of four antennae.

S-IVB third stage

Main article: S-IVB

An S-IVB stage being moved out of NASA's Vehicle Assembly Building.

The S-IVB stage was built by the Douglas Aircraft Company at Huntington Beach, California. It had one Rocketdyne J-2 engine and used liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen. The S-IVB used a common bulkhead to separate the two tanks. It was 17.86 m (58 ft 7 in) tall with a diameter of 6.60 m (21 ft 8 in) and was also designed with high mass efficiency, though not quite as aggressively as the S-II. The S-IVB had a dry mass of about 33,600 pounds (15,200 kg) and, when fully fueled, weighed about 265,600 pounds (120,500 kg). The S-IVB had a burn time of 165 seconds the first burn and 312 seconds the second burn. Its single J-2 engine produced 1,000 kN (225,000 lbf) of thrust. The S-IVB was the only rocket stage of the Saturn V small enough to be transported by the cargo plane Aero Spacelines Pregnant Guppy.

Structure

The S-IVB stage consists of the following structural assemblies: the forward skirt, propellant tanks, aft skirt, thrust structure, and aft interstage. These assemblies, with the exception of the propellant tanks, are all of a skin/stringer type aluminum alloy airframe construction. In addition, there are two longitudinal tunnels which house wiring, pressurization lines, and propellant dispersion systems. The tunnel covers are made of aluminum stiffened by internal ribs. The forward skirt, cylindrical in shape, extends forward from the intersection of the liquid hydrogen tank sidewall and the forward dome, providing a hard attach point for the instrument unit (IU). It is the load supporting member between the liquid hydrogen tank and the IU. An access door in the IU allows servicing of the equipment in the forward skirt.

The thrust structure assembly is an inverted, truncated cone attached at its large end to the aft dome of the liquid oxygen tank and attached at its small end to the engine mount. It provides the attach point for the J-2 engine and distributes the engine thrust over the entire tank circumference. Attached externally to the thrust structure are the engine piping, wiring and interface panels, eight ambient helium spheres, hydraulic system, oxygen/hydrogen burner, and some of the engine and liquid oxygen tank instrumentation.

The propellant tank is cylindrical with a hemispherical shaped dome at each end, and a common bulkhead to separate the liquid oxygen from the liquid hydrogen. This bulkhead is of sandwich type construction consisting of two parallel hemispherical shaped 2014 aluminum alloy domes bonded to and separated by a fiberglass-phenolic honeycomb core. The internal surface of the liquid hydrogen tank is machine milled in a waffle pattern to obtain required tank stiffness with minimum structural weight. Attached to the inside of the liquid hydrogen tank are; a 10 metres (34 ft) propellant utilization probe, nine cold helium spheres, brackets with temperature and level sensors, a chill-down pump, a slosh baffle, a slosh deflector, and fill, pressurization and vent pipes. Attached to the inside of the liquid oxygen tank are slosh baffles, a chill-down pump, a 4.1 metres (13.5 ft) propellant utilization probe, temperature and level sensors, and fill, pressurization and vent pipes. Attached externally to the propellant tank are helium pipes, propellant dispersion components, and wiring which passes through two tunnel fairings.

Cutaway diagram of the S-IVB stage.

Electrical and instrumentation systems

The electrical system of the S-IVB stage is comprised of two major subsystems: the electrical power subsystem which consists of all power sources on the stage; and the electrical control subsystem which distributes power and control signals to various loads throughout the stage. On board power is supplied by four zinc/silver-oxide batteries. Two are located in the forward equipment area and two in the aft equipment area. These batteries are activated in the stage during the final pre-launch preparations. Heaters and instrumentation probes are an integral part of each battery. The electrical control subsystem function is to distribute the command signals required to control the electrical components of the stage. The major components of the electrical control subsystem are the power and control distributors, the sequencer assemblies, and the pressure sensing and control devices.

The S-IVB stage instrumentation monitors functional operations of stage systems. Before liftoff, measurements are telemetered by coaxial cable to ground support equipment. During flight, radio frequency antennae convey data to ground stations, similar to the other two stages. The telemetry system consists of a pulse-code-modulator (PCM) digital data acquisition system (DDAS) for pre-launch checkout. The stage also contains a PCM frequency modulated (PCM/FM) system, a FM/FM system, and a single sideband (SS/FM) system for launch information. The radio frequency (RF) subsystem consists of a PCM-RF assembly, bi-directional coupler, RF detectors, DC amplifiers, coaxial switch, dummy load, RF power divider, and associated cabling. Omni-directional antenna pattern coverage is provided by the folded-sleeve dipoles. The effective radiating power of the system is 20 watts nominal and 16 watts minimum.

Instrument unit

Main article: Saturn V Instrument Unit

The instrument unit for the Apollo 4 Saturn V

The Instrument Unit (IU) is a cylindrical structure installed on top of the S-IVB stage. The IU contains the guidance, navigation, and control equipment. In addition, it contains telemetry, communications, tracking, and crew safety systems, along with their supporting electrical power and environmental control systems. Developed from the Saturn I IU, the Saturn V's IU was designed by the Marshall Space Flight Center and built by IBM at their Huntsville, Alabama facility. The basic IU structure is a short cylinder fabricated of an aluminum alloy honeycomb sandwich material. The structure is fabricated from three honeycomb sandwich segments of equal length. The top and bottom edges are made from extruded aluminum channels bonded to the honeycomb sandwich. This type of construction was selected for its high strength-to-weight ratio, acoustical insulation, and thermal conductivity properties. The cylinder is manufactured in three 120 degree segments, which are joined by splice plates into an integral structure. The access door segment has an umbilical door, as well as an equipment/personnel access door. The access door has the requirement to carry flight loads, and still be removable at any time prior to flight. The IU has a diameter of 6.6 metres (260 in), a height of 0.91 metres (36 in), and a weight of around 2,000 kilograms (4,500 lb).

Assembly

After the construction and ground testing of each stage was completed, they were each shipped to the Kennedy Space Center. The first two stages were so massive that the only way to transport them was by barge. Starting with the S-IC-3 first stage, the S-IC stages, constructed in New Orleans, were transported by barge, from the Michoud Assembly Facility to their testing facility and then to the Kennedy Space Center in Cape Canaveral, Florida. The S-II was constructed in Seal Beach, California and traveled Kennedy Space Center on the USNS Point Barrow. The S-IVB stage was constructed in Huntington Beach, California and was transported by air on the Aero Spacelines Super Guppy, except for the S-IVB-501 stage, which was transported by sea. After rounding Florida, all the stages transported by boat, were moved down the Intra-Coastal Waterway, across the Gulf of Mexico, to San Carlos Bay. From there, they traveled across Florida through the Okeechobee Waterway, before traveling up the coast to Cape Canaveral to the Vehicle Assembly Building.

Upon arrival at the Vehicle Assembly Building, each stage was inspected in a horizontal position before being oriented vertically starting with the first stage and ending with the Apollo spacecraft. NASA also constructed a large spool-shaped S-II second stage that could be used in place of stages if a particular stage was delayed. These spools were identical to the real stage and contained the same electrical connections as the actual stages. NASA assembled the Saturn V on a Mobile Launcher by using a 230 metric tons (250 short tons) overhead bridge crane and slings to lift the first stage onto the Mobile Launcher. The first stage is then held in place by four support arms. The rest of the stage are then stacked vertically in order. After assembly and testing were completed, the entire stack was moved from the Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB) to the launch pad using the Crawler Transporter (CT). Built by the Marion Power Shovel Company, the CT ran on four double-tracked treads, each with 57 "shoes". Each shoe weighed around .9 metric tons (0.99 short tons; 2,000 lb). Each CT had a length of 40 metres (130 ft) and a width of 35 metres (115 ft). This transporter was also required to keep the rocket level within 10 minutes of arc (0.16 degrees) as it traveled the 5.535 kilometres (3.439 mi) to the launch site, especially at the 5 percent grade encountered at the launch pad.

Cost

From 1964 until 1973, $6.417 billion (equivalent to $33.6 billion in 2023) was appropriated for the Research and Development and flights of the Saturn V, with the maximum being in 1966 with $1.2 billion (equivalent to $8.61 billion in 2023). That same year, NASA received its largest total budget of $4.5 billion, about 0.5 percent of the gross domestic product (GDP) of the United States at that time. In the time frame from 1969 to 1971 the cost of launching a Saturn V Apollo mission was $185 million (equivalent to $969 million in 2023).

Mission profile

Launch preparation

The Mobile Service Structure (MSS), which the Saturn V sat on, is moved to the launch pad at Launch Complex 39A around 2 months before launch. This allowed technicians to access parts of the vehicle normally inaccessible. Testing and other preparations would begin at this time. Around 21 days before launch, technicians fuel the first stage up with RP-1. This is the only fuel that can be loaded on the vehicle prior to launch, as the other fuels, liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen are cryogenic and can only be loaded a couple hours before launch. The pre-count operation started around 6 days before launch. During the stage of preparation, equipment was installed and more testing was performed. At T−24 hours, the Saturn V was completely powered up using ground equipment. They also began monitoring wind speeds at KSC to ensure that the launch can proceed.

At T−9 hours before launch, a scheduled 11-hour hold began to allow the opportunity to work on any problems discovered. After the 11-hour hold ended, the backup crew of the mission entered the Command Module (CM) to set the switches and circuit breakers to a predetermined position. At T−7 hours 30 minutes, the liquid oxygen tanks on all three stages began to be loaded. Technicians began fueling the third stage and ended with the first stage around an hour later. At T−5 hours, the liquid hydrogen tanks began to be loaded, first staring with the second stage and moving on to the third stage. In both the liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen tanks, the tanks were continuously refilled as the liquid oxygen and hydrogen boil and evaporate. T−3 hours 45 minutes, the crew was awakened. 15 minutes later, another scheduled hold began. The hold lasted around an hour and a half and gave time for technicians to fix any problems discovered. At T−2 hours 40 minutes, the crew entered the Command Module and begin to get ready. The hatch was closed at T−2 hours and the cabin was sealed.

Range safety

There was two categories of range safety for each launch, ground safety and flight safety. The ground safety plan contained several different "safety packages", which included; vehicle destruct system, which includes a system description, circuit descriptions, schematics, ordnance system description, specifications, RF system description, installation, and checkout procedures, ordnance devices, which included descriptive information on chemical composition and characteristics, mechanical and electrical specifications, propellants and high pressure systems, which included descriptive data on chemical composition, quantities of each type, locations in the vehicle, handling procedures, and hazards, and special precautionary procedures, which covered possible unsafe conditions, lightning safeguards, use of complex test equipment, and radiological testing.

Flight safety outlined that, in the event of an abort requiring the destruction of the rocket, the range safety officer would remotely shut down the engines and after several seconds send another command for the shaped explosive charges attached to the outer surfaces of the rocket to detonate. These would make cuts in fuel and oxidizer tanks to disperse the fuel quickly and to minimize mixing. Around T−40 minutes, a test was done to see if the Saturn V can pick up the signal. The explosives were armed at T−5 minutes 30 seconds.

Startup sequence

Condensation clouds surrounding the Apollo 11 Saturn V as it works its way through the dense lower atmosphere.

At T−8 minutes, the on-board computer, the Launch Vehicle Digital Computer (LVDC), was armed. At T−5 minutes 45 seconds, the final Go/No Go was given from the launch controllers. At T−4 minutes 30 seconds, the Terminal Countdown Sequencer (TCS) was armed and was preparing to take over the countdown sequence from the human controllers. At T−3 minutes 7 seconds, the TCS began the automatic sequence of the countdown. From this point onward, everything happened automatically. At T−16.97 seconds, the TCS sent a signal to the LVDC and gave it control of the vehicle. The LVDC now had access to the internal gyroscopes and acceleromenters.

At T−8.9 seconds, the first stage ignition sequence was started. The center engine ignited first, followed by opposing outboard pairs at 300-millisecond intervals to reduce the structural loads on the rocket. At T+0.3 seconds, when thrust had been confirmed by the onboard computers, the rocket was "soft-released" in two stages: first, the hold-down arms released the rocket, and second, as the rocket began to accelerate upwards, it was slowed by tapered metal pins pulled through holes for half a second. At T+0.63 seconds, the IU umbilical cable was disconnected, which sent a signal to the LVDC indicating that launch had occurred.

At about T+1.7 seconds, the vehicle yawed 1.25 degrees away from the launch tower to ensure adequate clearance despite adverse winds; this yaw, although small, can be seen in launch photos taken from the east or west. It took about 4 seconds for the rocket to clear the tower. At an altitude of 140 meters (450 ft) the rocket rolled to the correct flight azimuth, which varied from 72 to 108 degrees depending on the time and date of launch. At T+20.6 seconds, The four outboard engines were tilted toward the outside so that in the event of a premature outboard engine shutdown, the remaining engines would thrust through the rocket's center of mass. At around T+1 minute, the Saturn V would reach the speed of sound.

Max Q sequence

Apollo 11 S-IC separation

At about T+1 minute 6 seconds, the rocket experienced maximum dynamic pressure (max q). The dynamic pressure on a rocket varies with air density and the square of relative velocity. Although velocity continues to increase, air density decreases so quickly with altitude that dynamic pressure falls below max q. As the Saturn V used fuel, its weight started to drop, increasing its speed. This caused the crew to experience 4g at T+2 minutes 15 seconds. To reduce the g forces, the center engine was cut, bringing down the g forces to 3g. Each F-1 engine was consuming 900,000 kilograms per minute (16.5 short ton/s). At this time, the Saturn V had an altitude of 44.1 kilometers (23.8 nmi), weighted 1,110,000 kilograms (2,450,000 lb), and had a speed of 118.740 kilometers per minute (6,492.8 ft/s)

When oxidizer or fuel depletion was sensed by the optical depletion sensors in the suction assemblies, the remaining four outboard engines were shut down, which happened around T+2 minutes 40 seconds. At this time, the Saturn V had an altitude of 66.1 kilometers (35.7 nmi), weighted 830,000 kilograms (1,820,000 lb), and had a speed of 165.847 kilometers per minute (9,068.6 ft/s) Just before first stage separation, on Apollo missions 6 and 8-15, small ullage engines were ignited for a couple of seconds to ensure that the fuels in the second stage were at the bottom of their tanks. First stage separation occurred a little less than one second after the engines were cutoff to allow for F-1 thrust tail-off. Eight small solid fuel separation motors separated the S-IC from the rest of the vehicle. The first stage would continue on a ballistic trajectory for another minute and 45 seconds before it would fall in the Atlantic Ocean about 560 kilometers (350 mi) downrange.

S-II sequence

Apollo 4 interstage falling away. The interstage glows as it interacts with the engine exhaust from the S-II stage.

After S-IC separation, the five J-2 engines were ignited and began providing thrust. It would take a couple of seconds for the J-2 engines to start providing full thrust. At about T+3 minutes 12 seconds, the interstage ring, which held the first and second stages together, and the ullage engines, dropped from the second stage. The interstage ring, only 3 feet 3 inches (1 m) from the outboard J-2 engines, would fall cleanly without hitting them, as the interstage could have potentially damaged two of the J-2 engines if it was attached to the S-IC. Shortly after interstage separation the Launch Escape System was also jettisoned.

At about T+3 minutes 24 seconds, the Saturn V switched from a pre-programmed trajectory to a "closed loop" or Iterative Guidance Mode. The pre-programmed trajectory was supposed to keep the vehicle on its trajectory but prioritized making sure that the aerodynamic forces on the Saturn V would not exceed its limits. The instrument unit now computed in real time the most fuel-efficient trajectory toward its target orbit. If the instrument unit failed, the crew could switch control of the Saturn to the command module's computer, take manual control, or abort the flight. At about T+7 minutes 40 seconds, the center engine shut down to reduce longitudinal pogo oscillations.

Five level sensors in the bottom of each S-II propellant tank were armed during S-II flight, allowing any two to trigger S-II cutoff and staging when they were uncovered. At about T+9 minutes 8 seconds, the rest of the J-2 engines would shut off and the process of separating the S-II from the S-IVB began. At this time, the Saturn V had an altitude of 187.2 kilometers (101.1 nmi) and had a speed of 414.966 kilometers per minute (22,690.6 ft/s). Similar to earlier, two small ullage engines were ignited for a couple of seconds to ensure that the fuels were at the bottom of their tanks. The retro motors were fired at the same time which separated the S-II stage from the rest of the rocket.

S-IVB sequence

Apollo 17 S-IVB rocket stage, shortly after transposition and docking with the Lunar Module.

Unlike the two-plane separation of the S-IC and S-II, the S-II and S-IVB stages separated with a single step. Around one second after the S-II's engines were cutoff, S-IVB's single J-2 engine was ignited, taking about 5 seconds to reach full thrust.

The third stage burned for about 2.5 minutes until first cutoff at about T+11 minutes 40 seconds. At this point it had an altitude of 191.1 kilometers (103.2 nmi) and had a speed of 467.46 kilometers per minute (25,561 ft/s). Unlike the previous two stages, S-IVB's J-2 engine would be restarted again for trans-lunar injection (TLI). After engine cutoff, the Saturn V entered a Earth parking orbit at an altitude of 190 kilometers (100 nmi) above the Earth. The third stage remained attached to the spacecraft while it orbited the Earth one and a half times while astronauts and mission controllers prepared for translunar injection (TLI).

Lunar Module sequence

TLI came at about T+2 hours and 44 minutes after launch. The J-2 would take around 10 seconds to reach full thrust. The S-IVB burned for almost six minutes, giving the spacecraft a velocity close to the Earth's escape velocity of about 650.460 kilometers per minute (35,567.6 ft/s). About 40 minutes after TLI, at about T+3 hours 17 minutes, the Apollo command and service module (CSM) separated from the third stage, turned 180 degrees, and docked with the Lunar Module (LM) that rode below the CSM during launch. The CSM and LM separated from the spent third stage 50 minutes later at about T+4 hours 17 minutes, in a maneuver known as transposition, docking, and extraction.

If it were to remain on the same trajectory as the spacecraft, the S-IVB could have presented a collision hazard, so its remaining propellants were vented and the auxiliary propulsion system fired to move it away. For lunar missions before Apollo 13, the S-IVB was directed toward the Moon's trailing edge in its orbit so that the Moon would slingshot it beyond earth escape velocity and into solar orbit. From Apollo 13 onwards, controllers directed the S-IVB to hit the Moon. Seismometers left behind by previous missions detected the impacts, and the information helped map the internal structure of the Moon.

Skylab sequence

Main article: Skylab

In 1965, the Apollo Applications Program (AAP) was created to look into science missions that could be performed using Apollo hardware. Much of the planning centered on the idea of a space station. Wernher von Braun's earlier (1964) plans employed a "wet workshop" concept, with a spent S-II Saturn V second stage being launched into orbit and outfitted in space. The next year AAP studied a smaller station using the Saturn IB second stage. By 1969, Apollo funding cuts eliminated the possibility of procuring more Apollo hardware and forced the cancellation of some later Moon landing flights. This freed up at least one Saturn V, allowing the wet workshop to be replaced with the "dry workshop" concept: the station (now known as Skylab) would be built on the ground from a surplus Saturn IB second stage and launched atop the first two live stages of a Saturn V. A backup station, constructed from a Saturn V third stage, was built and is now on display at the National Air and Space Museum.

Skylab was the only launch not directly related to the Apollo lunar landing program. The only significant changes to the Saturn V from the Apollo configurations involved some modification to the S-II to act as the terminal stage for inserting the Skylab payload into Earth orbit, and to vent excess propellant after engine cutoff so the spent stage would not rupture in orbit. The S-II remained in orbit for almost two years, and made an uncontrolled re-entry on January 11, 1975.

Post-Apollo proposal

The Saturn-Shuttle concept

In the early 1970s, as the public's attention turned away from space exploration to other matters, such as the Vietnam War, Congress started to cut NASA's budget. The U.S Government was less willing to continue funding NASA, especially after the improving of U.S-Soviet relations. After Apollo, the Saturn V was planned to be the prime launch vehicle for Prospector to be launched to the Moon. Prospector was a proposed 330-kilogram (730 lb) robotic rover, similar to the two Soviet Lunokhod rovers, the Voyager Mars probes, and a scaled-up version of the Voyager interplanetary probes. Saturn V was also to have been the launch vehicle for the nuclear rocket stage RIFT test program and for some versions of the upcoming NERVA project. All of these planned uses of the Saturn V were cancelled, with cost being a major factor. Edgar Cortright, who had been the director of NASA Langley, stated decades later that "JPL never liked the big approach. They always argued against it. I probably was the leading proponent in using the Saturn V, and I lost. Probably very wise that I lost."

The canceled second production run of Saturn Vs would very likely have used the F-1A engine in its first stage, providing a substantial performance boost. Other likely changes would have been the removal of the fins (which turned out to provide little benefit when compared to their weight), a stretched S-IC first stage to support the more powerful F-1As, and either the J-2s or an M-1 for the upper stages.

A number of alternate Saturn vehicles were proposed based on the Saturn V, ranging from the Saturn INT-20 with an S-IVB stage and interstage mounted directly onto an S-IC stage, through to the Saturn V-23(L) which would not only have five F-1 engines in the first stage, but also four strap-on boosters with two F-1 engines each, giving a total of thirteen F-1 engines firing at launch.

Lack of a second Saturn V production run killed these plans and left the United States without a super heavy-lift launch vehicle. Some in the U.S. space community came to lament this situation, as continued production could have allowed the International Space Station, using a Skylab or Mir configuration with both U.S. and Russian docking ports, to be lifted with just a handful of launches. The Saturn-Shuttle concept also could have eliminated the Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters that ultimately precipitated the Challenger accident in 1986.

Saturn V displays

The Saturn V depicted on the reverse of the 2024 Alabama American Innovation dollar

• There are two displays at the U.S. Space & Rocket Center in Huntsville:
  • SA-500D is on horizontal display made up of its S-IC-D, S-II-F/D and S-IVB-D. These were all test stages not meant for flight. This vehicle was displayed outdoors from 1969 to 2007, was restored, and is now displayed in the Davidson Center for Space Exploration.
  • Vertical display (replica) built in 1999 located in an adjacent area.
• There is one at the Johnson Space Center made up of the first stage from SA-514, the second stage from SA-515, and the third stage from SA-513 (replaced for flight by the Skylab workshop). With stages arriving between 1977 and 1979, this was displayed in the open until its 2005 restoration when a structure was built around it for protection. This is the only display Saturn consisting entirely of stages intended to be launched.
• Another one at the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex, made up of S-IC-T (test stage) and the second and third stages from SA-514. It was displayed outdoors for decades, then in 1996 was enclosed for protection from the elements in the Apollo/Saturn V Center.
• The S-IC stage from SA-515, originally at the Michoud Assembly Facility, New Orleans, is now on display at the Infinity Science Center in Mississippi.
• The S-IVB stage from SA-515 was converted for use as a backup for Skylab, and is on display at the National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C.

• 
  Complete Saturn V rocket display. Temporary exposition at the Kennedy Space Center.
• 
  First stage from SA-514, second stage from SA-515, and third stage from SA-513, Johnson Space Center
• 
  SA-500D (S-IC-D, S-II-F/D and S-IVB-D), U.S. Space & Rocket Center, Huntsville
• 
  Saturn V mock up, 1ː1 scale, U.S. Space & Rocket Center, Huntsville
• 
  S-IC-T (test stage) and second and third stages from SA-514, Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex
• 
  Saturn V main rockets, Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex

Discarded stages

On September 3, 2002, astronomer Bill Yeung discovered a suspected asteroid, which was given the discovery designation J002E3. It appeared to be in orbit around the Earth, and was soon discovered from spectral analysis to be covered in white titanium dioxide, which was a major constituent of the paint used on the Saturn V. Calculation of orbital parameters led to tentative identification as being the Apollo 12 S-IVB stage. Mission controllers had planned to send Apollo 12's S-IVB into solar orbit after separation from the Apollo spacecraft, but it is believed the burn lasted too long, and hence did not send it close enough to the Moon, so it remained in a barely stable orbit around the Earth and Moon. In 1971, through a series of gravitational perturbations, it is believed to have entered in a solar orbit and then returned into weakly captured Earth orbit 31 years later. It left Earth orbit again in June 2003.

See also

• Comparison of orbital launchers families
• Comparison of orbital launch systems
• Space exploration
• Comet HLLV (a Saturn-derived launch vehicle design from the 1990s)

References

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