Proto-Kra–Dai language
| Proto-Kra–Dai | |
|---|---|
| PKD | |
| Reconstruction of | Kra–Dai languages |
| Region | Pearl River region[citation needed] |
Reconstructed ancestor | Proto-Austro-Tai (proposed)
|
| Lower-order reconstructions | |
Proto-Kra–Dai (typically abbreviated as PKD) is the proposed reconstructed ancestor of the Kra–Dai languages.
Background
[edit]No full reconstruction of Proto-Kra–Dai has been published to date, although tentative reconstructions of many Proto-Kra–Dai roots have been attempted from time to time. Some preliminary Proto-Kra–Dai forms have been reconstructed by Benedict (1975)[1] and Wu (2002). Wu (2002) presents a reconstruction of Proto-Kra–Dai phonemes, which is based on data from the Tai, Kam-Sui, Hlai, and Kra branches.[2]
Liang & Zhang (1996) propose a reconstruction of Proto-Kra–Dai (Chinese: 原始侗台语) initials and finals, using data from all Kra–Dai branches except for Kra and Jiamao.[3]
Phonology
[edit]Proto-Kra–Dai has the finals *-l and *-c, which have been lost in most present-day Kra–Dai languages.[4] It also has the final stops *-p, *-t, *-k and final nasals *-m, *-n, *-ŋ.[4]
Ostapirat (2023) proposes the following consonant inventory for Proto-Kra–Dai, which is relatively simple compared to that of Proto-Tai and other lower-level reconstructions.[5]
| Labial | Coronal | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Glottal | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | m | n | ɲ | ŋ | |||||||||
| Plosive | Voiceless | p | t, ts | c | k | q | ʔ | ||||||
| Voiced | b | d | ɟ | ɡ | |||||||||
| Fricative | θ, s | ||||||||||||
| Approximant | w | r, l | j | ||||||||||
Norquest (2020) proposes the preglottalized sonorants *ʔb, *ʔd, *ʔɖ, *ʔɟ for Proto-Kra–Dai, as part of a four-way phonation distinction in Kra-Dai sonorants consisting of preaspirated, voiceless, plain, and preglottalized sonorants. Norquest (2020) also reconstructs velarized initial consonants (*Cˠ-) in Proto-Kra–Dai.[6]
Below is a table of Proto-Kra–Dai pre-syllables and their developments as proposed by Norquest (2020).[6]
| p-Kra-Dai | p-Lakkja | p-Kam-Sui | p-Ong-Be | p-Tai | p-Hlai |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *C-b | *w̥ | *C-b | *ʔb | *C-b | *ʋ |
| *C-d | *l̥ | *C-ʔɖ | *r̥ | *C-d | *ɾ |
| *C-ɖ | *j̊ (< *r̥) | *C-ʔɖ | *r | *C-ɖ | *ɾ |
| *C-ɟ | *l̥ | *ʔj | *j̊ | *ʔj | *hj |
| *Cəʔb | *ʔb | *ʔb | *ʔb | *ʔb | *ɓ |
| *Cəʔd | *l̥ | *ʔd | *r̥ | *ʔd | *ɗ |
| *Cəʔɖ | *l̥ | *ʔɖ | *r̥ | *ʔd | *ɗ |
| *Cəʔɟ | *j̊ | *ʔɟ | *j̊ | *ʔɟ | *tɕ |
| *Cəm | *m̥ | *ʔm | *m̥ | *m̥ | *ʔm |
| *Cən | *n̥ | *ʔn | *n̥ | *n̥ | *ʔn |
| *Cəȵ | *ȵ̥ | *ʔȵ | *ȵ̥ | *ȵ̥ | *ʔȵ |
| *Cəŋ | *ŋ̊ | *ʔŋ | *ŋ̊ | *ŋ̊ | *ʔŋ |
| *Cəl | *l̥ | *l̥ | *l̥ | *l̥ | *ʔl |
| *Cər | *j̊ (< *r̥) | *ʔr | *ʃ | *Cr | *hr |
| *Cəʀ | (*j̊) | *ʔʀ | (*ʃ) | (*ʀ̥) | (*hr) |
| *Cəw | *w̥ | *ʔw | *w̥ | *ʔw | (*ʔw) |
| *Cəj | *j̊ | *ʔj | *j̊ | *ʔj | (*ʔj) |
Ostapirat (2023) considers many Proto-Tai spirants and rhotics to have developed from the intervocalic lenition of Proto-Kra–Dai medial obstruents. Voicing in the Proto-Tai initial is determined by the voicing of the preceding consonant in the Proto-Kra–Dai form.[5]
| p-Kra–Dai | p-Tai |
|---|---|
| *(C)-p- | *v- [β] |
| *(C̥)-p- | *f- [βʰ] |
| *(C)-t- | *r- |
| *(C̥)-t- | *rʰ- |
| *(C)-ts- | *z- [ɮ] |
| *(C̥)-ts- | *s- |
| *(C)-k- | *ɣ- |
| *(C̥)-k- | *x- |
| *-q- | *-ɢ- |
Some Proto-Kra–Dai sesquisyllabic consonant onsets reconstructed by Ostapirat (2023) are:[5]
| Gloss | p-Kra–Dai | p-Tai | p-Kam–Sui |
|---|---|---|---|
| taro | *b.r- | *prɨak D | *ʔraːk D |
| thin | *b.r- | *proːm A | *ʔruːm A |
| forehead | *p.r- | *praːk D | *praːk D |
| hair | *p.r- | *prom A | *pram A |
| ribs | *g.r- | *kraːŋ C | |
| "Kra"; slave | *k.r- | *kraː C |
Liang & Zhang (1996)
[edit]Liang & Zhang (1996) propose the following reconstructions of Proto-Kra–Dai (Chinese: 原始侗台语) initials and finals, using data from all Kra–Dai branches except for Kra and Jiamao.[3]
- Initial consonants
- Plain stop initials
- *p, *pw, *pl, *plw, *pr
- *t, *tl, *tr
- *k, *kw, *kl, *klw, *kr, *krw
- *q, *ql, *qr, *ʔ
- *b, *bw, *bl, *blw, *br
- *d, *dl, *dr
- *g, *gw, *gl, *glw, *gr, *grw, *ɢ
- Voiced aspirated initials
- *bɦ, *bwɦ, *brɦ
- *dɦ, *ndlɦ
- *gɦ, *gwɦ
- *ɣɦ, *ɣwɦ, *ɢɦ, *ʁɦ, *sɢrɦ
- Preglottalized initials
- *ʔb, *ʔbw, *ʔbl, *ʔblw
- *ʔd, *ʔdl, *ʔdr
- *ʔm, *ʔml, *ʔmr
- *ʔn, *ʔnl, *ʔnr, *ʔȵ, *ʔŋ, *ʔŋw
- Voiceless nasal initials
- *m̥, *m̥w, *m̥l, *m̥r, *m̥rw
- *n̥, *n̥l, *ȵ̥, *ȵ̥w, *ŋ̥, *ŋ̥w
- Plain nasal initials
- *m, *mw, *ml, *mr
- *n, *nr, *ȵ, *ŋ, *ŋw, *ŋr, *ɴl
- Prenasalized initials
- *mp, *mpl, *mpr
- *nt, *ntl, *ntr
- *ŋk, *ŋkw, *ŋkl
- *mb, *mbl, *mbr
- *nd, *ndl, *ndr
- *ŋg, *ŋgl, *ŋgr
- Glide and liquid initials
- *ʔw, *ʔr, *ʔj
- *w̥, *l̥, *r̥, *j̥
- *w, *l, *r, *j
- Fricative initials
- *s, *sw, *sl, *sr, *ɕ, *x, *xw, *xl, *xr, *h
- *z, *zl, *zr, *ʑ, *ɣ, *ɣw, *ɣl, *ʁ, *ɦ
- Initial clusters beginning with fricatives
- *xp, *xpl, *xpr, *xt, *xk, *xkw, *xkl, *xklw, *xkr, *xkrw, *xq, *xql
- *sp, *spw, *spl, *st, *stl, *str, *sk, *skw, *skl, *skr, *skrw, *sq, *sqr
- *zb, *zd, *zdw, *zgr
- Vowels and diphthongs
- *a, *a, *i̯a, *u̯a, *ɯ̯a
- *ə̯, *i̯ə, *u̯ə
- *ɛ, *i̯ɛ, *e, *i̯e
- *ɔ, *u̯ɔ, *ɯ̯ɔ, *o, *i̯o, *u̯o, *ɯ̯o
- *i̯, *u̯i, *ie ,iə, *ia, *iɛ
- *u, *i̯u, *ɯ̯u, *ue, *uə, *ua, *uo, *uɔ, *uɯ
- *ɯ, *ɯe, *ɯə, *ɯa, *ɯɔ, *ɯu
Lexicon
[edit]Ostapirat (2018, 2023)
[edit]Weera Ostapirat (2018a)[7] reconstructs disyllabic forms for Proto-Kra–Dai, rather than sesquisyllabic or purely monosyllabic forms. His Proto-Kra–Dai reconstructions also contains the finals */-c/ and */-l/.[8] Ostapirat (2018b:113)[9] lists the following of his own Proto-Kra–Dai reconstructions.
Notes:
- */K-/: either /k-/ or /q-/
- */C-/: unspecified consonant
- */T-/ and */N-/ are distinct from */t-/ and */n-/.
| Gloss | Proto-Kra–Dai |
|---|---|
| blood | *pɤlaːc |
| bone | *Kudɤːk |
| ear | *qɤrɤː |
| eye | *maTaː |
| hand | *(C)imɤː |
| nose | *(ʔ)idaŋ |
| tongue | *(C)əmaː |
| tooth | *lipan |
| dog | *Kamaː |
| fish | *balaː |
| horn | *paquː |
| louse | *KuTuː |
| fire | *(C)apuj |
| stone | *KaTiːl |
| star | *Kadaːw |
| water | *(C)aNam |
| I (1.SG) | *akuː |
| thou (2.SG) | *isuː; amɤː |
| one | *(C)itsɤː |
| two | *saː |
| die | *maTaːj |
| name | *(C)adaːn |
| full | *pətiːk |
| new | *(C)amaːl |
Some additional tentative Proto-Kra–Dai reconstructions by Ostapirat (2023) include the following.[5]
| Gloss | Proto-Kra–Dai |
|---|---|
| chin | *ləqaːŋ A |
| shoulder pole | *ləqaːn A |
| person | *niqun A |
| bitter | *təqam A[a] |
| excrement | *taqiː C[b] |
| rice | *rəquː C |
| young chicken | *rəqaːŋ B |
| fire | *apuy A |
| tooth | *ipan A |
| rain | *kipun A |
| millet | *kipaːŋ C |
| vomit | *utaːk D |
| we (incl.) | *atuː A |
| carry on pole | *kətaːp D |
| break | *kətak D |
| pestle | *tsaːk D |
| sour | *qatsum C |
| wash | *(C)atsak D |
| left | *(C)itsaːy |
| thatch grass | *ikaː A |
| field dike | *ikal A |
| knee | *tukuː B |
| to crow | *tikal A |
| moon | *bulaːn A |
| flower | *baluːk D |
| to weed | *bəlaːy A[c] |
| spotted | *bəlaːŋ B[d] |
Norquest (2020)
[edit]Norquest (2020) lists the following of his own Proto-Kra–Dai and other lower-level reconstructions.[6]
| Gloss | p-Kra-Dai | p-Lakkja | p-Kam-Sui | p-Ong-Be | p-Tai | p-Hlai |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| thin | *C-báːŋ | *w̥aːŋ | *C-baːŋ | *ˀbjaŋ | *C-baːŋ | – |
| bone | *Cudə́ːk | – | *C-ˀɖaːk | *r̥ɯk | *C-dwoːk | *Cuɾɯːk |
| boat | *Cuɖáː | *j̊waː | *C-ˀɖrwaː | *rwaː | *C-ɖwaː | *Cuɾaː |
| borrow | *C-ɟáːm | *l̥aːm | *ˀjaːm | – | *ˀjɯːm | – |
| village | *Cəˀbáːnʔ | *ˀbaːnʔ | *ˀbaːnʔ | – | *ˀbaːnʔ | – |
| winnow basket | *Cəˀdóŋʔ | *l̥oŋʔ | *ˀdɔŋʔ | *r̥oːŋ X | *ˀdoŋʔ | *ɗoŋʔ |
| to stand | *Cəˀɟún | *j̊uːn | *ˀɟun | *j̊un | *ˀɟɯn | *tɕuːn |
| dog | *kʰ[u]máː | *kʰ-mwaː | *k-hmaː | *m̥aː | *m̥aː | *hmaː |
| ditch | *[t]-m̥ˠáːŋ | – | *T-m̥jaːŋ | *m̥aŋ | *m̥ɯəŋ | – |
| ant | *r-móȶ | *mot | *r-mət | *muːʔ | *moc | *hmuȶ |
| bear | *kəˀmˠúj | *k-Nuːj | *ˀmjeː | – | *m̥wiː | *ˀmuj |
| thick | *tsəˀnáː | *ts-Naː | *ˀɳaː | *n̥aː | *n̥aː | *ˀnaː |
| cold | *kəˀȵít | *k-Niːt | *ˀȵit | *n̥iːt | *n̥it | – |
| stupid | *Cəˀŋáːŋh | *ˀŋaːŋh | *ˀŋaːŋh | *ŋ̊əːŋ X | – | – |
| gills | *Cəˀŋˠáːk | – | *ˀȵaːk | *ŋaːk | *ŋ̊ɯək | *ˀŋaːk |
| taro | *pəˀrˠáːk | *j̊aːk (< *r̥aːk) | *ˀrjaːk | *ʃaːk | *prɯək | *hraːk |
| moan | *gəˀráːŋ | *j̊aːŋ (< *r̥aːŋ) | *ˀraːŋ | – | *graːŋ | – |
| hungry | *məˀjáːk | – | *m-ˀjaːk | *j̊ak | *ˀjaːk | – |
| stupid | *Cəˀwáːʔ | – | *ˀwaːʔ | – | *ˀwaːʔ | – |
Lower-level reconstructions
[edit]Norquest (2021) provides the following lower-level reconstructions for each branch of Kra–Dai.[10]
| Gloss | p-Biao–Lakkja | p-Kam–Sui | p-Kra | p-Hlai | p-Be | p-Tai |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| house | *ljaːk | *r̥aːn | *qran | *hrɯːn | *raːn | *rɤːn |
| road | *tsaːŋ | *qʰwən | *qron | *kuːn | *ʃwən | *r̥wɤn |
| heavy | *N-tsak | *C-dʑan | *qχəl | *kʰɯn | *xən | *n̥ak |
| leg | *puk | *p-qaː | *C-qaː | *kʰok | *kok | *f-qaː |
| neck | *ʔən | *ʔdənʔ | *C-joː | *hljoŋʔ | *liəŋX | *ɣoː |
| beard | *m-luːt | *m-nrut | *mumʔ | *hmɯːmʔ | *mumX | *mumh |
| wet field | *raːh | *ʔraːh | *naː | *hnaːɦ | *njaː | *naː |
| crow | *kaː | *qaː | *ʔak | *ʔaːk | *ʔak | *kaː |
| needle | *tɕʰəm | *tɕʰəm | *ŋot | *hŋuc | *ŋaːʔ | *qjem |
| mortar | – | *krˠəm | *ʔdru | *ɾəw | *ɦoːk | *grok |
| tongue | *m-laː | *maː | *l-maː | *hliːnʔ | *liːnX | *linʔ |
| wing | – | *C-faːh | *ʀwaː | *pʰiːk | *pik | *piːk |
| skin | – | *ŋʀaː | *taː | *n̥əːŋ | *n̥aŋ | *n̥aŋ |
| to shoot | – | *pɛŋh | – | *hɲɯː | *ɲəː | *ɲɯː |
| to fly | *[C-]pənh | *C-pˠənʔ | – | *ɓin | *ʔbjən | *ʔbil |
| bee | *mlet | *luk | *reː | *kəːj | *ʃaːŋX | *prɯŋʔ |
| vegetable | – | *ʔmaː | *ʔop | *ɓɯː ʈʂʰəj | *ʃak | *prak |
| red | – | *hlaːnʔ | – | *hraːnʔ | *r̥iŋ | *C-djeːŋ |
| to bite | *kat | *klət | *ʈajh | *hŋaːɲʔ | *gap | *ɢɦap |
| to descend | *lojʔ | *C-ɭuːjh | *caɰʔ | *l̥uːj | *roːŋ | *N-ɭoŋ |
Note that like Jiamao, Proto-Be does not distinguish between tone categories B and C, but rather only has an X category, which Chen (2018) names as tone category BC.[11]
See also
[edit]- Austro-Tai languages
- Old Chinese
- Proto-Austronesian language
- Proto-Hmong–Mien language
- Proto-Austroasiatic language
Further reading
[edit]- Sagart, Laurent. 2019. A model of the origin of Kra-Dai tones. Cahiers de Linguistique Asie Orientale, 48(1), 1–29. doi:10.1163/19606028-04801004
- Sagart, Laurent. 2020. "Labial fortitions in Kra-Dai." In Sino-Tibetan-Austronesian.
- Norquest, Peter (2021). "Classification of (Tai-)Kadai/Kra-Dai languages". The Languages and Linguistics of Mainland Southeast Asia. De Gruyter. pp. 225–246. doi:10.1515/9783110558142-013. ISBN 9783110558142. S2CID 238672319.
Notes
[edit]References
[edit]- ^ Benedict, Paul K. 1975. Austro-Thai: language and culture, with a glossary of roots. New Haven: Human Relations Area Files Press.
- ^ Wu, Anqi 吴安其. 2002. Hanzangyu tongyuan yanjiu 汉藏语同源研究. Beijing: Minzu University Press 中央民族大学出版社. ISBN 7-81056-611-3
- ^ a b Liang Min 梁敏 & Zhang Junru 张均如. 1996. Dongtai yuzu gailun 侗台语族概论 / An introduction to the Kam–Tai languages. Beijing: China Social Sciences Academy Press 中国社会科学出版社. ISBN 9787500416814
- ^ a b Ostapirat, Weera. 2009. Proto-Tai and Kra-Dai Finals *-l and *-c. Journal of Language and Culture, 28(2), 41–56.
- ^ a b c d Ostapirat, Weera (2023). Proto-Kra–Dai consonants: an outline and outstanding issues. 32nd Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society (SEALS 2023), May 18, 2023. Chiang Mai University. Archived from the original on May 22, 2023. Retrieved May 22, 2023.
- ^ a b c Norquest, Peter. 2020. A Hypothesis on the Origin of Preglottalized Sonorants in Kra-Dai. 38th West Coast Conference on Formal Linguistics. Vancouver: Department of Linguistics, University of British Columbia. doi:10.14288/1.0389866
- ^ Ostapirat, Weera. 2018a. Reconstructing Disyllabic Kra-Dai. Paper presented at the 28th Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society, held May 17–19, 2018 in Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
- ^ Ostapirat, Weera. 2009. Proto-Tai and Kra–Dai finals *-l and *-c. Journal of Language and Culture Vol. 28 No. 2 (July – December 2009).
- ^ Ostapirat, Weera. 2018b. "Macrophyletic Trees of East Asian Languages Re examined." In Let's Talk about Trees, ed. by Ritsuko Kikusawa and Lawrence A. Reid. Osaka: Senri Ethnological Studies, Minpaku. doi:10.15021/00009006
- ^ Norquest, Peter (2021). "Classification of (Tai-)Kadai/Kra-Dai languages". The Languages and Linguistics of Mainland Southeast Asia. De Gruyter. pp. 225–246. doi:10.1515/9783110558142-013. ISBN 9783110558142. S2CID 238672319.
- ^ Chen, Yen-ling (2018). Proto-Ong-Be (PDF) (Ph.D. dissertation). University of Hawaii at Manoa. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2023-06-05. Retrieved 2023-04-27.