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Indigenous people of New Guinea

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Papuans
Dani people from the central highlands of Western New Guinea, Indonesia.
Total population
14,800,000
Regions with significant populations
Papua New Guinea and Western New Guinea, Indonesia, Australia
Languages
Languages of Papua
In Papuan New Guinea: Tok Pisin, Hiri Motu, Unserdeutsch and English
In Indonesia: Papuan Malay and Indonesian
Religion
Christianity, Islam,[1] Traditional Faiths
Related ethnic groups
Other Melanesians, Ambonese, Moluccans, Aboriginal Australians, Malagasy people

The indigenous peoples of Western New Guinea in Indonesia and Papua New Guinea, commonly called Papuans,[2] are Melanesians. There is genetic evidence for two major historical lineages in New Guinea and neighboring islands: a first wave from the Malay Archipelago perhaps 50,000 years ago when New Guinea and Australia were a single landmass called Sahul and, much later, a wave of Austronesian people from the north who introduced Austronesian languages and pigs about 3,500 years ago. They also left a small but significant genetic trace in many coastal Papuan peoples.

Linguistically, Papuans speak languages from the many families of non-Austronesian languages that are found only on New Guinea and neighboring islands, as well as Austronesian languages along parts of the coast, and recently developed creoles such as Tok Pisin, Hiri Motu, Unserdeutsch, and Papuan Malay.[3][4][5]

The term "Papuan" is used in a wider sense in linguistics and anthropology. In linguistics, "Papuan languages" is a cover term for the diverse, mutually unrelated, non-Austronesian language families spoken in Melanesia, the Torres Strait Islands, and parts of Wallacea. In anthropology, "Papuan" is often used to denote the highly diverse aboriginal populations of Melanesia and Wallacea prior to the arrival of Austronesian-speakers, and the dominant genetic traces of these populations in the current ethnic groups of these areas.[4]

Children dressed up for sing‑sing in Papua New Guinea.

Languages

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The language families in Ross's conception of the Trans-New Guinea language family.

Ethnologue's 14th edition lists 826 languages of Papua New Guinea and 257 languages of Western New Guinea, a total of 1083 languages, with 12 languages overlapping. If we adopt the figure proposed by Glottolog for Papua New Guinea, namely 928 languages,[6] the total is even higher. This corresponds to 15% of the world's 7700 languages.

In terms of linguistic families, the indigenous languages of New Guinea can be divided into two groups: 283 languages belong to the Austronesian family, and the other 858 are non-Austronesian[7]—a grouping commonly described as “Papuan languages” for convenience.

The term Papuan languages refers to an areal grouping, rather than a linguistic one. So-called “Papuan” languages are distributed into as many as eighty unrelated linguistic phyla, including 43 families and 37 isolates.[8]: 6 

Papuan ethnic groups

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The following indigenous peoples live within the modern borders of Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. Austronesian-speaking (AN) groups are given in italics.

Indonesia

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See also: Papuans (Indonesia)

West Papua

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Main article: List of ethnic groups of West Papua

Papuan ethnic groups / tribes in the Indonesian province of West Papua include: Arfak [id] (Hatam [id], Meyah [id], Moile [id], dan Sougb [id]), Borai, Numfor Doreri, Irarutu [id], Koiwai, Kuri [id], Madewana, Mairasi, Maniwak, Mbaham-Matta [id], Miere [id], Moru, Moskona [id], Napiti, Oburauw, Roon [id], Roswar, Sebyar (Damban & Kemberan) [id] , Soviar, Sumuri, Wamesa, Warumba, Waruri, Wondama [id].[9]

Magasa dance of the Arfak people

Southwest Papua

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Main article: List of ethnic groups of Southwest Papua

Papuan ethnic groups / tribes in the Indonesian province of Southwest Papua include Abun, Ambel [id], Batanta, Biak (Betew [id], Kafdaron [id], Bikar [id], Usba [id], Wardo [id]), Biga, Butlih [id], Domu, Fiawat [id], Imekko (Inanwatan-Bira [id], Matemani-Iwaro, Kais-Awe [id], Kokoda-Emeyode [id]), Irires, Ma'ya [id] (Kawe, Langanyan, Wawiyai), Matbat [id], Maybrat [id] (Ayamaru [id], Mare, Karon Dori-Miyah [id], Aifat [id], Aytinyo), Moi-Ma'ya, Moi, Mpur [id], Nerigo, Tehit, Tepin [id], Yahadian, Yaben-Konda.[9]

The Maybrat people near Lake Ayamaru, 1930s.

Papua

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A Biak man wearing his traditional clothes.

Papuan ethnic groups/tribes in the Indonesian province of Papua include:[10]

Jayapura City
  • Kayu Batu/Kayu Pulau
  • Tobati
  • Enggros
  • Nafri
  • Skouw
  • Sentani
Jayapura Regency
  • Demta
  • Kaureh
  • Kemtuk
  • Kawamsu
  • Mekwei
  • Narau
  • Gresi
  • Nimboran
  • Oria
  • Ormu
  • Kapori
  • Foya
  • Sauso
  • Tabia
  • Tarpia
  • Taworfa
  • Yansu
  • Yamna
  • Kendate
  • Tofamna
  • Bauwi
Sarmi Regency
  • Akwaikai
  • Airoran
  • Anus
  • Baburiwa
  • Bagusa
  • Yarsun
  • Bapu
  • Bonerif
  • Lairawa
  • Kauweraweo
  • Mander
  • Papasena
  • Wakde
  • Baso
  • Bonggo
  • Itik
  • Keder
  • Maremgi
  • Podena
  • Marembori
  • Babe
  • Kabera
  • Kwerba
  • Masimasi
  • Samarokena
  • Wares
  • Berik
  • Dabra
  • Kwesten
  • Massep
  • Sobei
  • Warotai
  • Betaf
  • Foau
  • Kapitiauw
  • Liki
  • Nopuk
Keerom Regency
  • Aywi
  • Janggu
  • Taikat
  • Yafi
  • Manem
  • Sowei
  • Dubu
  • Molof
  • Usku
  • Emumu
  • Sangke
  • Waina
  • Senggi
  • Waris
Biak Numfor Regency
  • Borapasi
  • Bonefa
  • Kofei
  • Sauri
  • Siromi
  • Tafaro
  • Waropen
  • Wairata
  • Burate
  • Sedasi
  • Otodema
  • Demisa
  • Demba
  • Biak
Waropen Regency
  • Amabi
  • Ansus
  • Busami
  • Karema
  • Kurudu
  • Marau
  • Munggui
  • Nisa
  • Papuma
  • Pom
  • Arui
  • Woi
  • Anate
  • Nakabui
  • Waropen
Yapen Islands Regency
  • Borapasi
  • Bonefa
  • Kofei
  • Sauri
  • Siromi
  • Tafaro
  • Waropen
  • Wairata
  • Burate
  • Sedasi
  • Otodema
  • Demisa
  • Demba
Mamberamo Regency


Highland Papua

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Nduga people gathers in Kenyam for peace in ethnic conflict.

Papuan ethnic groups/tribes in the Indonesian province of Highland Papua include:[10]

Jayawijaya Regency
Yalimo Regency
Pegunungan Bintang Regency
Tolikara Regency
  • Taori
  • Kwerisa
  • Toarikei
  • Turui
  • Lani
Yahukimo Regency

Central Papua

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Four Yaur men, including one korano (village head) in Kwatisore.

Papuan ethnic groups/tribes in the Indonesian province of Central Papua include:[10]

Deiyai Regency
Dogiyai Regency
Intan Jaya Regency
Mimika Regency
Nabire Regency[11]
Paniai Regency[12]
Puncak Regency
Puncak Jaya Regency
  • Dani atas
  • Dem
  • Duvle
  • Lani
  • Nduga
  • Turu
  • Wano

South Papua

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Papuan ethnic groups/tribes in the Indonesian province of South Papua include:[10]

Merauke Regency
Asmat Regency
Mappi Regency
Boven Digoel Regency

Languages

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Main article: Papuan languages
The official Agency for Language Development and Cultivation linguistic map of 325 native Papuan languages in Papua (Indonesia) alone (not including another Papuan languages beyond Papua in Eastern Indonesia as a whole).

According to the official Indonesian national linguistic data, there are at least 428 living Papuan languages (and 37 Papua-based isolate languages) natively spoken by the Papuans in Indonesia alone belonging to either Austronesian or Papuan (non-Austronesian) language families,[13] making it the most linguistically diverse community in Indonesia. The Papuan languages are also spoken in the vicinity islands by the diasporic or descendants of Papuan community, such as Timor–Alor–Pantar in Timor, Alor, and Pantar,[14] as well as North Halmahera in Maluku Islands.[15][16]: 20  Papuan languages are at some extent related to the Aboriginal Australian languages, particularly Pama–Nyungan spoken in Northern Australia.

As part of the Indonesian nationals, the Papuans also speak Indonesian, it is an official and unified national language of Indonesia, which also spoken by their fellow Papuans in closest neighbouring country (Papua New Guinea).[17]

Cultures and traditions

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Carving

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Asmat sculptor in Indonesia.

Carving (especially wood carving) in Indonesian Papuan culture is not merely decorative—it embodies a deep connection to the spirit world, tradition, and community identity.[18] It is a significant artistic and cultural tradition among many Indigenous Papuan communities in Indonesia, especially in regions like Asmat, Kamoro, and Sentani. These carvings are deeply symbolic and often tied to spiritual beliefs, ancestral worship, and daily life.[18]

Showcase of Mimika (Kamoro) wood carvings.

Among the Asmat Papuans, for example, wood carving is highly developed and serves ritual purposes. They create bis poles, tall carved wooden poles made to honor ancestors and used in funerary ceremonies. The carvings typically depict human figures, animals, and mythological symbols representing strength, protection, and spiritual connection. Meanwhile, Sentani artists are famous for carving motifs into wooden bark paintings and household items, often featuring spiral patterns and stylized figures.[18]

Mummification

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Mummy of Weropak Elosak

In some highland communities, such as the Dani tribespeople in the Baliem Valley, mummification called akonipuk [id] is a traditional practice used to honor and preserve the bodies of important tribal leaders or warriors.[18] The process involves smoking the corpse over a fire for weeks to dry and preserve it, often in a sitting position. These mummies are then kept in special huts and are considered sacred, symbolizing ancestral strength and leadership. This tradition is now rare and mostly preserved as cultural heritage.[18] Similar mummification traditions are practiced by the Mee, the Moni, the Lani, the Eipo, among others.

Noken

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Main articles: Noken and Noken system
Woven noken made from Pandan leaves, common in coastal areas

Noken, the traditional knitted or woven bag, an invention of the Indonesian Papuan people, is internationally inscribed as the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) since 2012.[19]

Knitted noken made from Melinjo bark, common in highland areas

It is also inspired the Noken system, a unique electoral method used in Indonesia. Instead of individual voting, community leaders (Papuan tribal chiefs) vote on behalf of their people, often through consensus or traditional customs. This system respects local indigenous Papuan traditions and emphasizes communal decision-making rather than individual ballots. This system also known colloquially as 'Papuan hanging bag system' (named after the hanging Noken).[20]

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Indonesian Papuan kids in Tarik tambang (lit. 'Indonesian rope pulling') competition, taking place during the celebrations of the Indonesian Independence Day.

Indonesian Papuans have gained increasing recognition in popular culture (nationwide in Indonesia and internationally), particularly in the movie and music industries. In Indonesian cinema, Papuan actors have been cast in leading roles, portraying authentic stories from their communities and highlighting the region's unique cultural identity. In the music scene, Papuan artists have also emerged in mainstream competitions and platforms, showcasing powerful vocals and distinct musical styles rooted in their heritage. This growing representation reflects a broader movement toward inclusion and appreciation of Papua's contributions to Indonesia's cultural diversity.

Movies

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  • Denias, Senandung di Atas Awan (2006) (lit. 'Denias, the Hum Above the Clouds')
  • Tanah Mama (2015) (lit. 'the Land of Mother')
  • Zabur (Bukan) Nabi (2023) (lit. 'Psalm (Not) the Prophet')

Notable people

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A

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B

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E

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F

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M

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N

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R

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S

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  • Saiful Islam Al-Payage, Indonesian Islamic preacher

T

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See also

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References

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  1. ^ Viartasiwi, Nino (2013). "Holding on a Thin Rope: Muslim Papuan Communities as the Agent of Peace in Papua Conflict☆". Procedia Environmental Sciences. 17: 860-869. Bibcode:2013PrEnS..17..860V. doi:10.1016/j.proenv.2013.02.104.
  2. ^ From the Malay word pəpuah 'curly hair'. "Papuan". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
  3. ^ Traditional Melanesia at the Encyclopædia Britannica
  4. ^ a b Friedlaender J, Friedlaender FR, Reed FA, Kidd KK, Kidd JR (2008). "The Genetic Structure of Pacific Islanders". PLOS Genetics. 4 (3): e19. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.0040019. PMC 2211537. PMID 18208337.
  5. ^ Jinam, Timothy A.; Phipps, Maude E.; Aghakhanian, Farhang; Majumder, Partha P.; Datar, Francisco; Stoneking, Mark; Sawai, Hiromi; Nishida, Nao; Tokunaga, Katsushi; Kawamura, Shoji; Omoto, Keiichi; Saitou, Naruya (August 2017). "Discerning the Origins of the Negritos, First Sundaland People: Deep Divergence and Archaic Admixture". Genome Biology and Evolution. 9 (8): 2013–2022. doi:10.1093/gbe/evx118. PMC 5597900. PMID 28854687.
  6. ^ Languages of Papua New Guinea, on Glottolog.
  7. ^ Numbers calculated by subtracting the number of Solomon Islands languages from the totals on p.278 of: François, Alexandre (2018). "In search of island treasures: Language documentation in the Pacific". In Bradley McDonnell, Andrea L. Berez-Kroeker, Gary Holton (ed.). Reflections on Language Documentation 20 Years after Himmelmann 1998. Language Documentation & Conservation Special Publication. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. pp. 276–294. hdl:10125/24829. ISBN 978-0-9973295-3-7. Retrieved 25 March 2025.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
  8. ^ Palmer, Bill (2018). The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area. Mouton De Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-028642-7.
  9. ^ a b Ronsumbre, Adolof (2020). Ensiklopedia Suku Bangsa di Provinsi Papua Barat. Yogyakarta: Penerbit Kepel Press. ISBN 978-602-356-318-0.
  10. ^ a b c d "Pemerintah Provinsi Papua". www.papua.go.id. Retrieved 16 February 2021.
  11. ^ "Bupati Mesak Siap Bangun Asrama Siswa Suku Terasing di Nabire – Pemerintah Kabupaten Nabire". Pemerintah Kabupaten Nabire – "Nabire Aman, Mandiri dan Sejahtera". Retrieved 25 October 2022.
  12. ^ "Keadaan Geografis". Pemerintah Kabupaten Paniai. Retrieved 5 March 2023.
  13. ^ "Risiko Kepunahan Bahasa Daerah Papua Meningkat, Kemendikbudristek Dorong Revitalisasi" [The Risk of Papuan Languages Extinction is Rising, the Indonesian Ministry of Education-Research-and Technology Supports the Revitalization] (in Indonesian). Ministry of Education, Research and Technology of Indonesia. 2022.
  14. ^ Donohue, Mark (3 January 2008). "The Papuan Language of Tambora". Oceanic Linguistics. 46 (2): 520–537. doi:10.1353/ol.2008.0014. ISSN 1527-9421. S2CID 26310439.
  15. ^ Pawley, Andrew; Hammarström, Harald (2018). "The Trans New Guinea family". In Palmer, Bill (ed.). The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area: A Comprehensive Guide. The World of Linguistics. Vol. 4. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 21–195. ISBN 978-3-11-028642-7.
  16. ^ van Staden, Miriam; Reesink, Ger (2008). "Serial verb constructions in a linguistic area". In Senft, Gunter (ed.). Serial verb constructions in Austronesian and Papuan languages. Pacific Linguistics 594. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics, Research School Of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University. pp. 17–54. ISBN 978-0-85883-591-7. OCLC 271765117.
  17. ^ "The French Language Celebrated in Papua New Guinea". Coopération Régionale et Relations Extérieures de la Nouvelle-Calédonie.
  18. ^ a b c d e Cite error: The named reference IY was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  19. ^ "Noken multifunctional knotted or woven bag: Handcraft of the people of Papua". United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). Retrieved 21 October 2019.
  20. ^ Simon Butt (2015). The Constitutional Court and Democracy in Indonesia. BRILL. p. 169. ISBN 9789004250598.
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South Papua

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Marind men in Merauke, c. 1930

Papuan ethnic groups/tribes in the Indonesian province of South Papua include:[1]

Merauke Regency
Asmat Regency
Mappi Regency
Boven Digoel Regency

Papua New Guinea

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Bismarck Archipelago

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Origin and genetics

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Phylogenetic position of the Papuan lineage among other East Eurasians.
Schematic summary of population settlement in Insular Southeast Asia, involving several East Eurasian lineages: (A) Initial occupation of Sunda and Sahul by ancestry related to modern New Guinean and Australian Aboriginal populations, followed by deep mainland Asian (Tianyuan- or Onge-related) ancestry. (B) Dispersals of ancestries associated with ancient Mainland Southeast Asian and ancestral Punan-related components predating the coastal South Chinese, and hence Austronesian-related, ancestries. (C) Austronesian expansion leading to Austronesian (Ami- and Kankanaey-related) ancestry observed in NE and SE Borneans and subsequent specific Papuan ancestry admixture observed in the Lebbo population in East Borneo.

The origin of Papuans is generally associated with the first settlement of Australasia by a lineage dubbed 'Australasians' or 'Australo-Papuans' during the Initial Upper Paleolithic, which is "ascribed to a population movement with uniform genetic features and material culture" (Ancient East Eurasians), and sharing deep ancestry with modern East Asian peoples and other Asia-Pacific groups.[2][3][4] It is estimated that people reached Sahul (the geological continent consisting of Australia and New Guinea) between 50,000 and 37,000 years ago. Rising sea levels separated New Guinea from Australia about 10,000 years ago. However, Aboriginal Australians and Papuans had diverged genetically much earlier, around 40,000 years BP. Papuans are more closely related to Melanesians than to Aboriginal Australians.[5][4]

Haplogroups

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The majority of Papuan Y-DNA Haplogroups belong to subclades of Haplogroup MS, and Haplogroup C1b2a. The frequency of each haplogroup varies along geographic clines.[6][7]

Autosomal DNA

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The genetic makeup of Papuans is primarily derived from Ancient East Eurasians, which relates them to other mainland Asian groups such as the "AASI", Andamanese, as well as East/Southeast Asians, although Papuans may have also received some gene flow from an earlier group (xOoA), around 2%,[8] next to additional archaic Denisovan admixture in the Sahul region. Papuans may harbor varying degrees of deep admixture from "a lineage basal to West and East-Eurasians which occurred sometimes between 45 and 38kya", although they are generally regarded "as a simple sister group of Tianyuan" ("Basal East Asians").[3][4][2] They are also closely related to Andamanese Onge and East Asians and mainly differ due to their Denisovan admixture.[9]

PCA plot of genetic variation of worldwide populations. Papuans (green) cluster relative close to other East Eurasians, such as East/Southeast Asians.

There is evidence that the ancestors of Papuans and related groups "underwent a strong bottleneck before the settlement of the region, and separated around 20,000–40,000 years ago".[10]

Papuans display pronounced genetic diversity, explained through isolation and drift between different subgroups after the settlement of New Guinea. The most notable differentiation was found to be between Highlanders and Lowlanders. Papuan Highlanders fall into three clusters, but form a single clade compared against Lowlanders. The Highlanders underwent a population bottleneck around 10,000 years ago, associated with the adoption of Neolithic lifestyles. Papuan Lowlanders display increased diversity and can be broadly differentiated into a Southern Lowlander cluster and a Northern Lowlander cluster. The genetic differentiation among Papuans is suggested to date back at least 20kya, while the sub-structure among Highlanders dates back around 10kya, with higher diversity among western Highlanders than Eastern ones. The genetic diversity is paralleled by linguistic and cultural diversity.[11]

Archaic introgression

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Based on his genetic studies of the Denisova hominin, an ancient human species discovered in 2010, Svante Pääbo claims that ancient human ancestors of the Papuans interbred in Asia with these humans. He has found that people of New Guinea share 4%–7% of their genome with the Denisovans, indicating this exchange.[12] Denisovan introgressions may have influenced the immune system of present-day Papuans and potentially favoured "variants to immune-related phenotypes" and "adaptation to the local environment".[13]

ASPM gene

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In a 2005 study of ASPM gene variants, Mekel-Bobrov et al. found that the Papuan people have among the highest rate of the newly evolved ASPM Haplogroup D, at 59.4% occurrence of the approximately 6,000-year-old allele.[14] While it is not yet known exactly what selective advantage is provided by this gene variant, the haplogroup D allele is thought to be positively selected in populations and to confer some substantial advantage that has caused its frequency to rapidly increase.

Notable people

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See also

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References

[edit]
  1. ^ Cite error: The named reference Pemprov Papua was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  2. ^ a b Taufik, Leonard; Teixeira, João C.; Llamas, Bastien; Sudoyo, Herawati; Tobler, Raymond; Purnomo, Gludhug A. (December 2022). "Human Genetic Research in Wallacea and Sahul: Recent Findings and Future Prospects". Genes. 13 (12): 2373. doi:10.3390/genes13122373. ISSN 2073-4425. PMC 9778601. PMID 36553640.
  3. ^ a b Yang, Melinda A. (6 January 2022). "A genetic history of migration, diversification, and admixture in Asia". Human Population Genetics and Genomics. 2 (1): 1–32. doi:10.47248/hpgg2202010001. ISSN 2770-5005.
  4. ^ a b c Vallini, Leonardo; Marciani, Giulia; Aneli, Serena; Bortolini, Eugenio; Benazzi, Stefano; Pievani, Telmo; Pagani, Luca (10 April 2022). "Genetics and Material Culture Support Repeated Expansions into Paleolithic Eurasia from a Population Hub Out of Africa". Genome Biology and Evolution. 14 (4). doi:10.1093/gbe/evac045. ISSN 1759-6653. PMC 9021735. PMID 35445261. Taken together with a lower bound of the final settlement of Sahul at 37 kya it is reasonable to describe Papuans as either an almost even mixture between East-Eurasians and a lineage basal to West and East-Eurasians which occurred sometimes between 45 and 38kya, or as a sister lineage of East-Eurasians with or without a minor basal OoA or xOoA contribution. We here chose to parsimoniously describe Papuans as a simple sister group of Tianyuan, cautioning that this may be just one out of six equifinal possibilities.
  5. ^ Pedro, Nicole; Brucato, Nicolas; Fernandes, Veronica; André, Mathilde; Saag, Lauri; Pomat, William; Besse, Céline; Boland, Anne; Deleuze, Jean-François; Clarkson, Chris; Sudoyo, Herawati; Metspalu, Mait; Stoneking, Mark; Cox, Murray P.; Leavesley, Matthew; Pereira, Luisa; Ricaut, François-Xavier (October 2020). "Papuan mitochondrial genomes and the settlement of Sahul". Journal of Human Genetics. 65 (10): 875–887. doi:10.1038/s10038-020-0781-3. PMC 7449881. PMID 32483274.
  6. ^ 崎谷, 満 (2009). "DNA・考古・言語の学際研究が示す新・日本列島史 : 日本人集団・日本語の成立史" [New History of the Japanese Archipelago Revealed by Interdisciplinary Research on DNA, Archeology, and Language]. (No Title) (in Japanese).
  7. ^ Kayser, Manfred; Brauer, Silke; Weiss, Gunter; Schiefenhövel, Wulf; Underhill, Peter; Shen, Peidong; Oefner, Peter; Tommaseo-Ponzetta, Mila; Stoneking, Mark (1 February 2003). "Reduced Y-Chromosome, but Not Mitochondrial DNA, Diversity in Human Populations from West New Guinea". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 72 (2): 281–302. doi:10.1086/346065. ISSN 0002-9297. PMC 379223. PMID 12532283.
  8. ^ "Almost all living people outside of Africa trace back to a single migration more than 50,000 years ago". www.science.org. Retrieved 19 August 2022.
  9. ^ Yang, Melinda A. (2022). "A genetic history of migration, diversification, and admixture in Asia". Human Population Genetics and Genomics. 2 (1) – via Pivot Science Publications.
  10. ^ Choin, Jeremy; Mendoza-Revilla, Javier; Arauna, Lara R.; Cuadros-Espinoza, Sebastian; Cassar, Olivier; Larena, Maximilian; Ko, Albert Min-Shan; Harmant, Christine; Laurent, Romain; Verdu, Paul; Laval, Guillaume; Boland, Anne; Olaso, Robert; Deleuze, Jean-François; Valentin, Frédérique (April 2021). "Genomic insights into population history and biological adaptation in Oceania". Nature. 592 (7855): 583–589. Bibcode:2021Natur.592..583C. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03236-5. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 33854233.
  11. ^ Bergström, Anders; Oppenheimer, Stephen J.; Mentzer, Alexander J.; Auckland, Kathryn; Robson, Kathryn; Attenborough, Robert; Alpers, Michael P.; Koki, George; Pomat, William; Siba, Peter; Xue, Yali; Sandhu, Manjinder S.; Tyler-Smith, Chris (15 September 2017). "A Neolithic expansion, but strong genetic structure, in the independent history of New Guinea". Science. 357 (6356): 1160–1163. Bibcode:2017Sci...357.1160B. doi:10.1126/science.aan3842. ISSN 0036-8075. PMC 5802383. PMID 28912245.
  12. ^ Carl Zimmer (22 December 2010). "Denisovans Were Neanderthals' Cousins, DNA Analysis Reveals". NYTimes.com.
  13. ^ Vespasiani, Davide M.; Jacobs, Guy S.; Cook, Laura E.; Brucato, Nicolas; Leavesley, Matthew; Kinipi, Christopher; Ricaut, François-Xavier; Cox, Murray P.; Gallego Romero, Irene (8 December 2022). "Denisovan introgression has shaped the immune system of present-day Papuans". PLOS Genetics. 18 (12): e1010470. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1010470. ISSN 1553-7390. PMC 9731433. PMID 36480515.
  14. ^ Mekel-Bobrov, Nitzan; Gilbert, Sandra L.; Evans, Patrick D.; Vallender, Eric J.; Anderson, Jeffrey R.; Hudson, Richard R.; Tishkoff, Sarah A.; Lahn, Bruce T. (9 September 2005). "Ongoing Adaptive Evolution of ASPM , a Brain Size Determinant in Homo sapiens". Science. 309 (5741): 1720–1722. Bibcode:2005Sci...309.1720M. doi:10.1126/science.1116815. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 16151010. S2CID 30403575.

Further reading

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