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Denmark–Norway relations

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Denmark–Norway relations
Map indicating locations of Denmark and Norway

Denmark
Norway
Diplomatic mission
  • Danish embassy in Oslo
  • Norwegian embassy in Copenhagen

Denmark and Norway are closely entwined having strong connections in society, economy, and culture.[1] Both countries were part of the Kalmar Union between 1397 and 1523, and the two countries were in a personal union with each other from 1537 and 1814.[2][3]

The two countries established diplomatic relations on 7 November 1905.[4] Denmark has an embassy in Oslo, while Norway has an embassy in Copenhagen.[5][6]

History

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Viking era and the Kalmar Union (800–1523)

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By the 10th century, Denmark and Norway emerged as distinct kingdoms, with Denmark consolidating under Harald Bluetooth and Norway unified under Harald Fairhair.[7][8]

At the start of the 11th century, King Cnut of Denmark conquered Norway, while later, in the mid-century, King Magnus the Good of Norway came to rule over Denmark. In the centuries that followed, the monarchs of Denmark and Norway gradually lost interest in the lands ruled by the other. Denmark turned its focus to expansion along the Baltic coast, while Norway looked westward, directing its ambitions toward the British Isles, the North Atlantic islands, and Greenland. However, by the late 13th century, the growing influence and expansion of German power and the constant wars between the countries began to draw Denmark, Norway, and Sweden back into closer contact. The prelude to the Kalmar Union was the marriage between Danish princess Margaret and Norwegian King Haakon VI in 1363, On the death of Haakon in 1380, their son Olaf II succeeded him as King of Denmark and Norway. Olaf died suddenly in 1387, aged 16, and Margaret, who had ruled both kingdoms in his name, was chosen Regent of Norway and Denmark in the following year. In 1389, she became Queen of Sweden after defeating Albert, King of Sweden in battle.[9] During the Kalmar era, Norway lost in relative economic strength to the other two countries and the Norwegian nobility was severely hit by the Black Death which meant that it did not have the resources to resist Danish or Swedish domination. By 1513, Norway was mainly ruled by Denmark politically and judicially and the Norwegian royal council was excluded from influence. Furthermore, in 1523, the Treaty of Bergen was signed between Denmark and Norway which stipulated that the two countries would forever be united under one king. When the Swedes under Gustav Vasa successfully broke up the Kalmar Union, Norwegians decided to abide by the Treaty of Bergen and elected Frederick I of Denmark as King of Norway in 1524.[2]

Denmark–Norway (1537-1814)

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Main article: Denmark–Norway

Tensions between Denmark and Norway would increase during the Reformation when Frederick I leaned towards the Protestant side to the dismay of Archbishop of Norway Olav Engelbrektsson who was prepared to defend Norway from the reformation. Moreover, in October 1531, former King of Denmark Christian II attempted to regain his kingdom and therefore sailed to Norway where he succeeded in gathering support for his cause but went on to lose against the forces of Frederick I who received support from Sweden and Lübeck.[10] In 1536, a haandfæstning was issued by Christian III making Norway a subject of Denmark which drastically altered the relationship between Denmark and Norway. With this decision, the Norwegian Royal Council was dismantled and no Norwegian institution could speak for Norway or conduct an independent foreign policy. Archbishop Engelbrektsson was moreover forced to flee as Norway was made Lutheran.[11] Bishops were placed under the Danish crown following the abolition of the archbishopric and Danish officials, often noble governors, administered Norway, though it retained separate laws. Copenhagen solidified its role as the political and economic hub, benefiting from trade policies that boosted its growth, while cities like Bergen in Norway lagged behind. By the late 17th century, Copenhagen had around 70,000 residents, compared to 13,000 in Bergen, up from 10,000 in the late medieval period. Norway, initially the least prosperous part of the union due to weaker agriculture and a smaller population, grew economically vital from the 16th century by supplying timber, tar, iron, and later copper and silver from mines in Røros and Kongsberg, with significant exports to the Netherlands. A mining administration, distinctively located in Kongsberg rather than Copenhagen, managed these valuable resources, bolstering state revenues. During the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) and conflicts with Sweden, the agricultural trade of Denmark faltered, but the resource-based economy of Norway thrived through connections with the booming Dutch market, elevating its role in the union.[12] Norway held critical importance in the Denmark–Norway union, driving conflicts with Sweden due to control over northern sea routes near the Russian port of Arkhangelsk, a vital trade hub for England. Christian IV of Denmark led a naval expedition to North Cape to assert Norwegian dominance, successfully countering Swedish advances toward the Arctic. The Treaty of Roskilde in 1658 forced Denmark to cede southern territories to Sweden, who also gained land around Trondheim, threatening to divide Norway, though Denmark reclaimed this area in later conflicts. Sweden persistently targeted Norway for over a century, valuing Norwegian exports that bolstered Danish finances. In 1718, Swedish King Charles XII died campaigning in Norway, underlining its strategic weight. By 1660, Frederick III elevated Norway to equal status with Denmark, establishing a formal twin monarchy, a structure that persisted until the union dissolved in 1814.[3]

Norway experienced significant transformation from 1660 to 1814, marked by uneven yet substantial growth within the Denmark–Norway union. The population doubled, rising from 440,000 in 1665 to 885,000 by 1815, despite periodic setbacks from wars, epidemics, and poor harvests. A predominantly rural society, Norway saw a sharp increase in small-scale farmers throughout the 1700s, with minimal urban development and virtually no aristocracy or large estates, unlike Denmark. The economy thrived through exports outpacing population growth and fostering long-term prosperity, though wealth remained unevenly distributed.. Economically, policies favored Danish imports over Norwegian exports, with a grain monopoly burdening Norwegian consumers, though late-1700s liberalization boosted trade and shipping. Culturally, Danish dominated as the language of administration, law, and religion, shaping a shared written culture that persisted beyond 1814. The Napoleonic Wars disrupted this stability, with British blockades in 1807 forcing Norway to manage independently, fostering self-reliance. The 1814 Treaty of Kiel ended the union, transferring Norway to Sweden, driven by external powers rather than internal Norwegian demands.[13]

Denmark and Norway-Sweden union (1814-1905)

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Norwegian dissatisfaction with Danish rule had grown, yet the separation stemmed from Swedish diplomatic efforts and international pressures, not internal demands. Danish prince Christian Frederik, serving as governor in Norway, played a pivotal role by supporting the creation of a liberal Norwegian constitution, adopted on 17 May 1814, and briefly reigned as king until Swedish demands forced abdication in October that year. The Union between Sweden and Norway was formed in November 1814, altering Nordic power dynamics. Danish sentiments mourned the loss, while Norwegians embraced newfound autonomy, viewing the end of the twin monarchy as a national rebirth, though cultural ties with Denmark persisted in literature and traditions.[14] Norway navigated lingering economic ties with Denmark through the 1819-1820 settlement of shared debts, a process that strained relations due to disputes over financial responsibilities.[15]

In 1905, Danish prince Carl was selected as King Haakon VII of Norway.[15]

Early to mid-20th century

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In the early 1900s, Denmark and Norway experienced both cooperation and diplomatic tension.[16] In December 1914, during the early phase of the World War I, the kings of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden met in the Malmö to declare the neutral stance of their countries. This event, held particular importance for Denmark and Norway, as it followed the peaceful separation of Norway from Sweden and represented a move toward regional reconciliation. Although the meeting presented a united Scandinavian front, some political unease remained. Norway, as a newly independent country, was cautious about becoming too closely associated with Sweden, while Denmark, located near Germany, faced its own difficulties in preserving neutrality. Despite these concerns, the meeting demonstrated a common desire for peace and helped strengthen cooperation among the Nordic countries.[17] Relations cooled in the early 1930s due to the Eastern Greenland dispute, where Norway attempted to assert sovereignty over parts of Greenland. The Permanent Court of International Justice ruled against Norway in 1933, reaffirming Danish control over the territory. During World War II, both Denmark and Norway were invaded by Germany in April 1940. Despite the differing responses, Denmark provided humanitarian assistance to Norway during its occupation. In the post-war period, Denmark and Norway aligned more closely with Western powers, joining NATO in 1949.[16]

In the years following World War II, Denmark and Norway explored avenues for closer cooperation within the broader context of Nordic collaboration. Between 1947 and 1960, both countries participated in multiple initiatives aimed at enhancing security and economic ties among Scandinavian nations. These efforts were influenced by developments such as the Marshall Plan, the establishment of the Organization for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC), and also NATO. Despite repeated attempts, many of these initiatives faced challenges and were ultimately not realized.[18]

Military relations

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In June 2024, Denmark and Norway formalized an agreement to enhance defense cooperation focusing on joint training, Arctic surveillance, and support for Ukraine. The agreement includes collaboration on military training, leveraging shared platforms like Leopard 2 tanks, F-35 fighter jets, and SEAHAWK helicopters. Norwegian personnel have been training in Denmark on SEAHAWK helicopters, and both nations are involved in training Ukrainian F-16 pilots. The cooperation also encompasses maritime operations in the North Atlantic and Arctic regions, air and missile defense, and initiatives to support Ukraine's defense capabilities. Additionally, Denmark and Norway plan to share experiences on gender-neutral conscription and human resources in the armed forces. This partnership operates within NATO, the EU, the Joint Expeditionary Force, and the Nordic Defence Cooperation frameworks, aiming to strengthen regional security and deterrence.[19] In February 2025, Denmark and Norway announced plans to deepen their defense cooperation in light of ongoing European security challenges. The agreement focuses on strengthening coordination in the Arctic and North Atlantic, supporting Ukraine, and enhancing collaboration within NATO and Nordic frameworks.[1]

Ambassadors

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List of Danish ambassadors to Norway:[20]

  • Henrik Grevenkop-Castenskiold (June 1906–23 September 1910)[21]
  • Otto Krag (12 November 1910–1 September 1919)[21]
  • Johan Christian Westergaard Kruse (1 November 1919[22]–1928)
  • Andreas Oldenburg (1928–1932)
  • Henrik Kauffmann (1932–1939)
  • Oscar O'Neill Oxholm (1939–1949)
  • Mathias Wassard (1949–1956)
  • Hans Jakob Hansen (1956–1959)
  • Alex Mørch (1959–1962)
  • Torben Rønne (1962–1965)
  • John Knox (1965–1968)
  • Eggert Adam Knuth (1968–1971)
  • Aage Hessellund Jensen (1971–1973)
  • Hans Erik Trane (1974–1979)
  • Sven Ebbesen (1979–1980)
  • Troels Oldenburg (1980–1985)
  • Hans Tabor (1986–1992)
  • Hans Henrik Bruun (1992–1996)
  • Ib Ritto Andreasen (1996–2001)
  • Sten Lilholt (2001–2005)
  • Theis Truelsen (2005–2010)
  • Hugo Østergaard-Andersen (9 September 2010–2013)[23]
  • Torben Brylle (5 September 2013–2017)[24]
  • Jarl Frijs-Madsen (19 September 2017–2021)[25]
  • Louise Bang Jespersen (23 September 2021–)[26]

List of Norwegian ambassadors to Denmark:[27]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ a b Norway (2025).
  2. ^ a b Gustafsson (2014), p. 48-50.
  3. ^ a b Gustafsson (2014), p. 53.
  4. ^ Government.no (27 April 1999). "Norges opprettelse af diplomatiske forbindelser med fremmede stater" (PDF). regjeringen.no (in Norwegian). p. 6. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 December 2024. Retrieved 14 December 2024.
  5. ^ "Danmark i Norge" (in Danish). Retrieved 23 April 2025.
  6. ^ "Norge i Danmark" (in Norwegian). Retrieved 23 April 2025.
  7. ^ Derry (1979), p. 30.
  8. ^ Derry (1979), p. 70.
  9. ^ Gustafsson (2014), p. 44-45.
  10. ^ Gustafsson (2014), p. 50.
  11. ^ Gustafsson (2014), p. 51.
  12. ^ Gustafsson (2014), p. 52-53.
  13. ^ Feldbæk (2009).
  14. ^ Hemstad (2025).
  15. ^ a b Bjørn (2009).
  16. ^ a b Tvedt (2009).
  17. ^ Kubala (2021).
  18. ^ Pharo (2019).
  19. ^ Denmark (2024).
  20. ^ "Danmarks gesandter og ambassadører i Oslo siden 1905" (in Danish). Retrieved 24 April 2025.
  21. ^ a b "Danske Gesandter og Gesandtskabspersonale indtil 1914" (PDF). slaegtsbibliotek.dk (in Danish). p. 298. Retrieved 28 May 2023.
  22. ^ Meddelelser fra Udenrigsministeriet ... (in Danish). 1920. p. 508.
  23. ^ "Order of Precedence, Oslo" (PDF). 20 September 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 October 2012. Retrieved 24 April 2025.
  24. ^ "Oslo Diplomatic List - March 2016". Archived from the original on 22 April 2016. Retrieved 24 April 2025.
  25. ^ "The Oslo Diplomatic List - June 2021" (PDF). p. 4. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 July 2021. Retrieved 24 April 2025.
  26. ^ "The Oslo Diplomatic List - February 2025" (PDF) (in Norwegian). p. 4. Retrieved 24 April 2025.
  27. ^ Norway (2001), p. 81.
  28. ^ "The Copenhagen List - October 2004" (PDF). p. 141. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 July 2005. Retrieved 13 January 2024.
  29. ^ "Copenhagen Diplomatic List - 2010" (PDF). p. 143. Archived from the original on 23 September 2010.
  30. ^ "H.M. Dronningen modtager ambassadøren for Norge, H.E. Jørg Willy Bronebakk, i afskedsaudiens i Christian IX's Palæ, Amalienborg, kl. 12.00" (in Danish). 29 June 2012. Retrieved 23 April 2025.
  31. ^ "Dronningen modtager fem nye ambassadører". Altinget (in Danish). 10 October 2012. Retrieved 23 April 2025.
  32. ^ "H.M. Dronningen modtager ambassadører i afskedsaudiens" (in Danish). 6 September 2017. Retrieved 23 April 2025.
  33. ^ "Ambassadørmodtagelser den 15. december 2017" (in Danish). 15 December 2017. Retrieved 23 April 2025.
  34. ^ "112 års mandsdominans blev endelig brudt, da vi i 2017 fik den første kvindelige, norske ambassadør til København. I dag sagde Aud Kolberg farvel til ambassaden og hængte sit billede op på væggen sammen med de tidligere ambassadører" (in Danish). 16 July 2021. Retrieved 24 April 2025.
  35. ^ "Ambassadørmodtagelse den 26. november 2021" (in Danish). 26 November 2021. Retrieved 23 April 2025.

Bibliography

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Further reading

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