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Air traffic control

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"Air traffic" redirects here. For the Canadian band, see Air Traffic Control (band). For the Owl City song, see Maybe I'm Dreaming.
This article is about civilian direction of aircraft. For other types of aircraft control, see Air control.

The air traffic control tower of Mumbai International Airport in India.

Air traffic control (ATC) is a service provided by ground-based air traffic controllers who direct aircraft on the ground and through a given section of controlled airspace, and can provide advisory services to aircraft in non-controlled airspace. The primary purpose of ATC is to prevent collisions, organize and expedite the flow of traffic in the air, and provide information and other support for pilots.[1]

Personnel of air traffic control monitor aircraft location in their assigned airspace by radar and communicate with the pilots by radio.[2] To prevent collisions, ATC enforces traffic separation rules, which ensure each aircraft maintains a minimum amount of 'empty space' around it at all times. It is also common for ATC to provide services to all private, military, and commercial aircraft operating within its airspace; not just civilian aircraft.[3] Depending on the type of flight and the class of airspace, ATC may issue instructions that pilots are required to obey, or advisories (known as flight information in some countries) that pilots may, at their discretion, disregard. The pilot in command of an aircraft always retains final authority for its safe operation, and may, in an emergency, deviate from ATC instructions to the extent required to maintain safe operation of the aircraft.[4]

Language

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See also: Aeronautical phraseology and Aviation English

Pursuant to requirements of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), ATC operations are conducted either in the English language, or the local language used by the station on the ground.[5] In practice, the native language for a region is used; however, English must be used upon request.[5]

History

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In 1920, Croydon Airport near London, England, was the first airport in the world to introduce air traffic control.[6] The 'aerodrome control tower' was a wooden hut 15 feet (5 metres) high with windows on all four sides. It was commissioned on 25 February 1920, and provided basic traffic, weather, and location information to pilots.[7][8]

In the United States, air traffic control developed three divisions. The first of several air mail radio stations (AMRS) was created in 1922, after World War I, when the U.S. Post Office began using techniques developed by the U.S. Army to direct and track the movements of reconnaissance aircraft. Over time, the AMRS morphed into flight service stations. Today's flight service stations do not issue control instructions, but provide pilots with many other flight related informational services. They do relay control instructions from ATC in areas where flight service is the only facility with radio or phone coverage. The first airport traffic control tower, regulating arrivals, departures, and surface movement of aircraft in the US at a specific airport, opened in Cleveland in 1930. Approach / departure control facilities were created after adoption of radar in the 1950s to monitor and control the busy airspace around larger airports. The first air route traffic control center (ARTCC), which directs the movement of aircraft between departure and destination, was opened in Newark in 1935, followed in 1936 by Chicago and Cleveland.[9]

After the 1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision, killing all 128 on board, the FAA was given the air-traffic responsibility in the United States in 1958, and this was followed by other countries. In 1960, Britain, France, Germany, and the Benelux countries set up Eurocontrol, intending to merge their airspaces. The first and only attempt to pool controllers between countries is the Maastricht Upper Area Control Centre (MUAC), founded in 1972 by Eurocontrol, and covering Belgium, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and north-western Germany. In 2001, the European Union (EU) aimed to create a 'Single European Sky', hoping to boost efficiency and gain economies of scale.[10]

Airport traffic control tower

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São Paulo–Guarulhos International Airport's control tower.
Control tower at Birmingham Airport, England.
Small control tower at Räyskälä Airfield in Loppi, Finland.

The primary method of controlling the immediate airport environment is visual observation from the airport control tower. The tower is typically a tall, windowed structure, located within the airport grounds. The air traffic controllers, usually abbreviated 'controller', are responsible for separation and efficient movement of aircraft and vehicles operating on the taxiways and runways of the airport itself, and aircraft in the air near the airport, generally 5 to 10 nautical miles (9 to 19 kilometres; 6 to 12 miles), depending on the airport procedures. A controller must carry out the job using the precise and effective application of rules and procedures; however, they need flexible adjustments according to differing circumstances, often under time pressure.[11] In a study that compared stress in the general population and this kind of system markedly showed more stress level for controllers. This variation can be explained, at least in part, by the characteristics of the job.[12]

Remote and virtual tower (RVT) is a system based on air traffic controllers being located somewhere other than at the local airport tower, and still able to provide air traffic control services.[13][14][15]

Ground control

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Inside Pope Field air traffic control tower.

Ground control (sometimes known as ground movement control, GMC) is responsible for the airport movement areas.[16]

Some busier airports have surface movement radar (SMR).[16]

Air control or local control

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Air control (known to pilots as tower or tower control) is responsible for the active runway surfaces.[16]

Flight data and clearance delivery

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Clearance delivery is the position that issues route clearances to aircraft, typically before they commence taxiing. These clearances contain details of the route that the aircraft is expected to fly after departure.[16]

Approach and terminal control

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See also: Terminal control area
"TRACON" redirects here. For the video game series, see TRACON (series).
Potomac Consolidated TRACON in Warrenton, Virginia, United States.

In the U.S., TRACONs are additionally designated by a three-digit alphanumeric code. For example, the Chicago TRACON is designated C90.[17]

Area control centre / en-route centre

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Main article: Area control center
The training department at the Washington Air Route Traffic Control Center, Leesburg, Virginia, United States.

General characteristics

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Radar coverage

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Unmanned radar on a remote mountain.

Some air navigation service providers (e.g., Airservices Australia, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration, Nav Canada, etc.) have implemented automatic dependent surveillance – broadcast (ADS-B) as part of their surveillance capability. This newer technology reverses the radar concept. Instead of radar 'finding' a target by interrogating the transponder, the ADS-B equipped aircraft 'broadcasts' a position report as determined by the navigation equipment on board the aircraft. ADS-C is another mode of automatic dependent surveillance, however ADS-C operates in the 'contract' mode, where the aircraft reports a position, automatically or initiated by the pilot, based on a predetermined time interval. It is also possible for controllers to request more frequent reports to more quickly establish aircraft position for specific reasons. However, since the cost for each report is charged by the ADS service providers to the company operating the aircraft,[disputed – discuss] more frequent reports are not commonly requested, except in emergency situations. ADS-C is significant, because it can be used where it is not possible to locate the infrastructure for a radar system (e.g., over water). Computerised radar displays are now being designed to accept ADS-C inputs as part of their display.[18][verification needed]

A radar archive system (RAS) keeps an electronic record of all radar information, preserving it for a few weeks. This information can be useful for search and rescue. When an aircraft has 'disappeared' from radar screens, a controller can review the last radar returns from the aircraft to determine its likely position. For an example, see the crash report in the following citation.[19]

Flight traffic mapping

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Problems

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Traffic

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Further information: Air traffic flow management
Intersecting contrails of aircraft over London, an area of high air traffic.

Air traffic control errors occur when the separation (either vertical or horizontal) between airborne aircraft falls below the minimum prescribed separation set (for the domestic United States) by the US Federal Aviation Administration. Separation minimums for terminal control areas (TCAs) around airports are lower than en-route standards. Errors generally occur during periods following times of intense activity, when controllers tend to relax and overlook the presence of traffic and conditions that lead to loss of minimum separation.[20][text–source integrity?]

Weather

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Aircraft taking off from Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport with the ATC tower in the background.

Congestion

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Constrained control capacity and growing traffic lead to flight cancellation and delays:[citation needed]

  • In America, delays caused by ATC grew by 69% between 2012 and 2017.[10] ATC staffing issues were a major factor in congestion.[21]

By then the market for air-traffic services was worth $14bn. More efficient ATC could save 5-10% of aviation fuel by avoiding holding patterns and indirect airways.[10]

The military takes 80% of Chinese airspace, congesting the thin corridors open to airliners. The United Kingdom closes its military airspace only during military exercises.[10]

Call signs

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A prerequisite to safe air traffic separation is the assignment and use of distinctive call signs. These are permanently allocated by ICAO on request, usually to scheduled flights, and some air forces and other military services for military flights. There are written call signs with a two or three letter combination followed by the flight number such as AAL872 or VLG1011. As such, they appear on flight plans and ATC radar labels. There are also the audio or radio-telephony call signs used on the radio contact between pilots and air traffic control. These are not always identical to their written counterparts. An example of an audio call sign would be 'Speedbird 832', instead of the written 'BAW832'. This is used to reduce the chance of confusion between ATC and the aircraft. By default, the call sign for any other flight is the registration number (or tail number in US parlance) of the aircraft, such as 'N12345', 'C-GABC', or 'EC-IZD'. The short radio-telephony call signs for these tail numbers is the last three letters using the NATO phonetic alphabet (e.g. ABC, spoken alpha-bravo-charlie for C-GABC), or the last three numbers (e.g. three-four-five for N12345). In the United States, the prefix may be an aircraft type, model, or manufacturer in place of the first registration character, for example, 'N11842' could become 'Cessna 842'.[22]

Technology

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The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has spent over US$3 billion on software, but a fully automated system is still yet to be achieved. In 2002, the United Kingdom commissioned a new area control centre into service at the London Area Control Centre (LACC) at Swanwick in Hampshire, relieving a busy suburban centre at West Drayton in Middlesex, north of London Heathrow Airport. Software from Lockheed-Martin predominates at the London Area Control Centre. However, the centre was initially troubled by software and communications problems causing delays and occasional shutdowns.[23]

Some tools are available in different domains to help the controller further:

  • Flight data processing systems: this is the system (usually one per centre) that processes all the information related to the flight (the flight plan), typically in the time horizon from gate to gate (airport departure / arrival gates). It uses such processed information to invoke other flight plan related tools (such as e.g. Medium Term Conflict Detection (MTCD).[24]
  • Short-term conflict alert (STCA) that checks possible conflicting trajectories in a time horizon of about two or three minutes (or even less in approach context; 35 seconds in the French Roissy & Orly approach centres).[25]
  • Center TRACON automation system (CTAS): a suite of human centred decision support tools developed by NASA Ames Research Center. Several of the CTAS tools have been field tested and transitioned to the FAA for operational evaluation and use. Some of the CTAS tools are: traffic management advisor (TMA), passive final approach spacing tool (pFAST), collaborative arrival planning (CAP), direct-to (D2), en route descent advisor (EDA), and multi-center TMA. The software is running on Linux.[26]
  • MTCD and URET:
Electronic flight progress strip system at São Paulo Intl. control tower – ground control.
  • The Nav Canada system known as EXCDS.[28]
  • Screen content recording: hardware or software based recording function which is part of most modern automation system, and that captures the screen content shown to the ATCO. Such recordings are used for a later replay together with audio recording for investigations and post event analysis.[29]
  • Communication navigation surveillance / air traffic management (CNS / ATM) systems are communications, navigation, and surveillance systems, employing digital technologies, including satellite systems, together with various levels of automation, applied in support of a seamless global air traffic management system.[30]

Air navigation service providers (ANSPs) and air traffic service providers (ATSPs)

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Main article: Air Navigation Service Provider
  • Spain – AENA now AENA S.A. (Spanish Airports) and ENAIRE (ATC & ATSP)[31]
  • Vietnam – Vietnam Air Traffic Management Corporation (VATM)[32]
  • Zambia – Zambia Civil Aviation Authority (ZCAA)[33]
  • Zimbabwe – Zimbabwe Civil Aviation Authority[34]

Proposed changes

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In the United States, some alterations to traffic control procedures are being examined:

  • Free flight is a developing air traffic control method that uses no centralised control (e.g. air traffic controllers). Instead, parts of airspace are reserved dynamically and automatically in a distributed way using computer communication to ensure the required separation between aircraft.[35]

In Europe, the Single European Sky ATM Research (SESAR)[27] programme plans to develop new methods, technologies, procedures, and systems to accommodate future (2020 and beyond) air traffic needs. In October 2018, European controller unions dismissed setting targets to improve ATC as "a waste of time and effort", as new technology could cut costs for users but threaten their jobs. In April 2019, the EU called for a 'Digital European Sky', focusing on cutting costs by including a common digitisation standard, and allowing controllers to move to where they are needed instead of merging national ATCs, as it would not solve all problems. Single air-traffic control services in continent-sized America and China does not alleviate congestion. Eurocontrol tries to reduce delays by diverting flights to less busy routes: flight paths across Europe were redesigned to accommodate the new airport in Istanbul, which opened in April, but the extra capacity will be absorbed by rising demand for air travel.[10]

Well-paid jobs in western Europe could move east with cheaper labour. The average Spanish controller earn over €200,000 a year, over seven times the country average salary, more than pilots, and at least ten controllers were paid over €810,000 ($1.1m) a year in 2010. French controllers spent a cumulative nine months on strike between 2004 and 2016.[10]

Privatisation

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Many countries have also privatised or corporatised their air navigation service providers.[36] There are several models that can be used for ATC service providers. The first is to have the ATC services be part of a government agency as is currently the case in the United States. The problem with this model is that funding can be inconsistent, and can disrupt the development and operation of services. Sometimes funding can disappear when lawmakers cannot approve budgets in time. Both proponents and opponents of privatisation recognise that stable funding is one of the major factors for successful upgrades of ATC infrastructure. Some of the funding issues include sequestration and politicisation of projects.[37] Proponents argue that moving ATC services to a private corporation could stabilise funding over the long term which will result in more predictable planning and rollout of new technology as well as training of personnel. As of November 2024, The United States had 265 contractor towers that are staffed by private companies but administered by FAA through its FAA Contract Tower Program, which was established in 1982. These contract control towers cover 51% of all the Federal air traffic control towers in the U.S..[38]

Another model is to have ATC services provided by a government corporation. This model is used in Germany, where funding is obtained through user fees. Yet another model is to have a for-profit corporation operate ATC services. This is the model used in the United Kingdom, but there have been several issues with the system there, including a large-scale failure in December 2014 which caused delays and cancellations and has been attributed to cost-cutting measures put in place by this corporation. In fact, earlier that year, the corporation owned by the German government won the bid to provide ATC services for Gatwick Airport in the United Kingdom. The last model, which is often the suggested model for the United States to transition to is to have a non-profit organisation that would handle ATC services as is used in Canada.[39]

The Canadian system is the one most often used as a model by proponents of privatisation. Air traffic control privatisation has been successful in Canada with the creation of Nav Canada, a private non-profit organisation which has reduced costs, and has allowed new technologies to be deployed faster due to the elimination of much of the bureaucratic red tape. This has resulted in shorter flights and less fuel usage. It has also resulted in flights being safer due to new technology. Nav Canada is funded from fees that are collected from the airlines based on the weight of the aircraft and the distance flown.[40]

Air traffic control is operated by national governments with few exceptions: in the European Union, only Italy has private shareholders.[10] Privatisation does not guarantee lower prices: the profit margin of MUAC was 70% in 2017, as there is no competition, but governments could offer fixed terms concessions.[10]

ATC regulations in the United States

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The United States airspace is divided into 21 zones (centres), and each zone is divided into sectors. Also within each zone are portions of airspace, about 50 miles (80 kilometres) in diameter, called TRACON (Terminal Radar Approach Control) airspaces. Within each TRACON airspace are a number of airports, each of which has its own airspace with a 5 miles (8.0 kilometres) radius. FAA control tower operators (CTO) / air traffic controllers use FAA Order 7110.65 as the authority for all procedures regarding air traffic.[41]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ "FAA 7110.65 2-1-1". FAA.gov. Federal Aviation Authority. n.d. Archived from the original on 7 June 2010.
  2. ^ "How air traffic control works". CAA.co.uk. UK Civil Aviation Authority. n.d. Archived from the original on 26 February 2021. Retrieved 21 January 2021.
  3. ^ "Air Traffic Organization | Federal Aviation Administration". www.faa.gov. Archived from the original on 5 February 2025. Retrieved 15 February 2025.
  4. ^ "Electronic Code of Federal Regulations (eCFR)". ECFR.gov. Electronic Code of Federal Regulations (eCFR). n.d. Retrieved 21 January 2021.
  5. ^ a b "IDAO FAQ". ICAO.int. International Civil Aviation Organization. n.d. Archived from the original on 20 February 2009. Retrieved 3 March 2009.
  6. ^ Green Jersey Web Design. "Heritage locations – South East – Surrey – Croydon Airport". Archived from the original on 25 September 2018. Retrieved 3 July 2015.
  7. ^ Kaminski-Morrow, David (25 February 2020). "Colourised images mark centenary of world's first control tower". Flight Global.
  8. ^ "How a hut in Croydon changed air travel". BBC News. Retrieved 2 March 2020.
  9. ^ FAA Historical Chronology, 1926–1996
  10. ^ a b c d e f g h "Air-traffic control is a mess". The Economist. 15 June 2019.
  11. ^ Costa, G (1995), Occupational stress and stress prevention in air traffic, Geneva: International Labour Office, Working paper: CONDI/T/WP.6/1995
  12. ^ Arghami, S; Seraji, JN; Mohammad, K; Zamani, GH; Farhangi, A; Van Vuuren, W (2005), Mental health in high-tech system, Iranian Journal of Public Health. 2005:31-7.
  13. ^ "CANSO Guidance Material for Remote and Digital Towers" (PDF). Civil Air Navigation Services Organisation (CANSO). January 2021. p. 5. Retrieved 23 August 2023.
  14. ^ "Guidance Material on remote aerodrome air traffic services". European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA). 15 February 2019. Retrieved 23 August 2023.
  15. ^ "Thirteenth Air Navigation Conference, Montréal, Canada, 9 to 19 October 2018, Committee A, Agenda item 3: Enhancing the global air navigation system, 3.5: Other ATM issues: Digitisation of Aerodrome Air Traffic Services" (PDF). International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). 9–19 October 2018. Retrieved 23 August 2023.
  16. ^ a b c d Smith, David (2021). Air Traffic Control Handbook. Manchester, England: Crécy Publishing Ltd. ISBN 978-1-9108-0999-0.
  17. ^ "Terminal Radar Approach Control Facilities (TRACON)". FAA.gov. Federal Aviation Administration. Retrieved 22 February 2014.
  18. ^ "Automatic Dependent Surveillance - Contract (ADS-C)". SKYbrary.aero. SKYbrary Aviation Safety. Retrieved 23 February 2021.
  19. ^ "crash report". TSB.gc.ca. 1996. Archived from the original on 7 March 2012. Retrieved 24 August 2010.
  20. ^ Breitler, Alan; Kirk, Kevin (September 1996), Effects of Sector Complexity and Controller Experience on Probability of Operational Errors in Air Route Traffic Control Centers, Center for Naval Analyses Document (IPR 95-0092)
  21. ^ Gilbert, Trish (15 June 2016). "Air traffic control staffing shortage must be addressed". The Hill. Retrieved 12 August 2022.
  22. ^ "What is an abbreviated aircraft call sign?". ATC Communication. Archived from the original on 20 October 2018. Retrieved 3 July 2015.
  23. ^ "Air Traffic Control". sites.Google.com. Retrieved 4 December 2012.
  24. ^ "Medium Term Conflict Detection (MTCD)". skybrary.aero. SKYbrary Aviation Safety. Retrieved 3 November 2024.
  25. ^ "Le filet de sauvegarde resserre ses mailles" (PDF). dgac.fr (in French). Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 March 2009.
  26. ^ "Technical Sessions". usenix.org. Retrieved 5 December 2010.
  27. ^ a b "SESAR". Eurocontrol.int. Eurocontrol. Archived from the original on 25 September 2008.
  28. ^ "Technology Solutions – Integrated Information Display System (IIDS) – Extended Computer Display System (EXCDS)". Nav Canada. Archived from the original on 16 June 2004.
  29. ^ "Solutions using Epiphan products". Epiphan Video capture, stream, record. Archived from the original on 15 February 2014. Retrieved 3 July 2015.
  30. ^ "CNS/ATM SYSTEMS" (PDF). icao.int. p. 10. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 November 2011.
  31. ^ "Acerca de ENAIRE – ENAIRE – Información corporativa". Archived from the original on 4 July 2015. Retrieved 3 July 2015.
  32. ^ "Company profile – Viet Nam Air Traffic Management Corporation". VATM.vn. Archived from the original on 30 September 2017. Retrieved 23 January 2024.
  33. ^ "Zambia Civil Aviation Authority - home". CAA.co.zm. Archived from the original on 2 August 2019. Retrieved 2 August 2019.
  34. ^ "Civil Aviation Authority of Zimbabwe". www.caaz.co.zw. Archived from the original on 29 June 2019. Retrieved 9 May 2021.
  35. ^ Leslie, Jacques. "Wired 4.04: Free Flight". Wired. Retrieved 3 July 2015.
  36. ^ McDougall, Glen; Roberts, Alasdair S (15 August 2007). "Commercialising Air Traffic Control: Have the reforms worked?". Canadian Public Administration: Vol. 51, No. 1, pp. 45–69, 2009. SSRN 1317450. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  37. ^ American Federation of Government Employees; et al. "FAA Labor Unions Oppose ATC Privatization" (PDF). Professional Aviation Safety Specialists. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 December 2022. Retrieved 25 November 2016.
  38. ^ "FAA Contract Tower Program". Federal Aviation Administration. 25 November 2024. Retrieved 4 January 2025.
  39. ^ Rinaldi, Paul (2015). "Safety and Efficiency Must Remain the Main Mission". The Journal of Air Traffic Control. 57 (2): 21–23.
  40. ^ Crichton, John (2015). "The NAV CANADA Model". The Journal of Air Traffic Control. 57 (2): 33–35.
  41. ^ "Air Traffic Plans and Publications" (PDF). FAA.gov. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 May 2009. Retrieved 5 December 2010.
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